3.6 The Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation, America's first governing document, established a weak central government after the Revolutionary War. It gave states significant power but left the national government struggling to address key issues like taxation and commerce.

Despite some successes in foreign policy, the Articles' limitations became clear. Economic instability, interstate conflicts, and an inability to respond to crises like Shays' Rebellion led to calls for a stronger central government, ultimately resulting in the Constitutional Convention.

Structure and Powers of the Articles of Confederation

Legislative Branch and State Representation

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• The Articles of Confederation established a unicameral legislature called the Confederation Congress, where each state had one vote regardless of size or population
• This equal representation appealed to smaller states but frustrated larger states who felt underrepresented given their greater population and economic contributions
• The one-state, one-vote system in the Confederation Congress ensured that no state could dominate the others, but also made it difficult to pass legislation and enact reforms

Limited Powers of the Confederation Congress

• The Confederation Congress had the power to declare war, negotiate treaties, and manage relations with Native Americans, but lacked the ability to directly tax or regulate commerce between states
• Without the power to impose taxes, the Confederation Congress relied on voluntary financial contributions from the states, resulting in persistent funding issues and a struggle to pay off war debts
• The inability to regulate interstate commerce led to trade disputes and economic competition between states, as each state could impose its own tariffs and trade policies

Lack of Executive and Judicial Branches

• Under the Articles, there was no separate executive branch or national judiciary, with most powers reserved for the individual states
• The absence of a strong executive made it difficult to enforce laws and implement national policies consistently across all states
• Without a national judiciary, there was no effective means to settle disputes between states or ensure that state laws aligned with the Articles of Confederation

Challenges in Amending the Articles

• The Articles required a unanimous vote of all thirteen states for any amendments, making it difficult to adapt the government to changing circumstances
• The high threshold for amendments reflected the states' fear of a strong central government and desire to protect their individual sovereignty
• However, this rigidity made it nearly impossible to make necessary changes to the Articles, even as the weaknesses of the government became increasingly apparent

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Appealing to States' Rights Advocates

• The Articles of Confederation maintained a loose federation of states, appealing to those who feared a strong central government and valued state sovereignty
• The emphasis on state power aligned with the revolutionary ideals of limited government and resistance to centralized authority
• However, this decentralization left the nation struggling to address major issues that required a coordinated, national response

Successes in Foreign Policy

• The government under the Articles successfully negotiated the Treaty of Paris to end the Revolutionary War, securing recognition of American independence and establishing the nation's borders
• The Confederation Congress also established diplomatic relations with foreign nations and negotiated trade agreements, demonstrating the government's ability to conduct foreign policy
• However, the lack of a strong central authority made it difficult to enforce the terms of treaties and protect American interests abroad

Economic Weaknesses and Instability

• The Articles did not grant the national government the power to regulate interstate commerce, leading to trade disputes and economic competition between states
• The lack of a uniform currency and the proliferation of state-issued paper money caused economic instability and made it difficult to conduct business across state lines
• The government's inability to impose taxes left it reliant on voluntary state contributions, resulting in persistent funding shortages and a struggle to pay off war debts

Western Land Management and the Northwest Ordinance

• The Articles provided a framework for western land management through the Northwest Ordinance, which established a process for admitting new states and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory
• The Northwest Ordinance set a precedent for the organized expansion of the United States and the creation of new states on equal footing with the original thirteen
• However, the weak central government lacked the power to effectively control and settle these territories, leading to conflicts with Native Americans and tensions between states over land claims

Challenges in National Defense and Foreign Threats

• While the Articles emphasized state sovereignty, the lack of a strong central authority made it difficult to coordinate national defense and left the nation vulnerable to foreign threats
• The Confederation Congress could declare war and raise an army, but it relied on states to provide troops and funding, making it challenging to mount an effective defense
• The inability to enforce the terms of the Treaty of Paris, particularly the removal of British troops from the Northwest Territory, highlighted the government's weakness in protecting national interests

Challenges Under the Articles of Confederation

Managing War Debt and Financial Instability

• The government under the Articles struggled to address the nation's substantial war debt, lacking the power to collect sufficient funds from the states to pay off foreign and domestic creditors
• The shortage of specie (gold and silver coins) and the proliferation of state-issued paper currency led to financial instability and economic uncertainty
• Shays' Rebellion, an armed uprising of farmers in Massachusetts protesting high taxes and debt, highlighted the government's inability to maintain order and address economic grievances

Conflicts Between States and Lack of National Unity

• The Articles provided no mechanism for the national government to intervene in disputes between states, such as those over trade policies, boundary lines, and land claims
• The lack of a national judiciary made it difficult to settle interstate conflicts, as each state had its own court system and interpretations of the law
• The inability to resolve disputes and promote cooperation between states threatened national unity and raised concerns about the long-term viability of the government under the Articles

Weakness in Foreign Policy and Trade Relations

• The government under the Articles struggled to enforce the terms of the Treaty of Paris, particularly the removal of British troops from the Northwest Territory and the protection of American merchants' rights
• The inability to secure favorable trade agreements with European powers, due in part to the lack of a unified national trade policy, put American businesses at a disadvantage
• The weakness of the national government in foreign affairs made it difficult to protect American interests abroad and maintain the nation's hard-won independence

Calls for a Stronger Central Government

• The challenges faced by the nation under the Articles of Confederation, including financial instability, interstate conflicts, and foreign policy weaknesses, ultimately led to calls for a stronger central government
• Prominent figures such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison argued that the Articles were inadequate to meet the needs of the growing nation and that a more robust federal government was necessary
• These concerns culminated in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where delegates from twelve states gathered to draft a new Constitution that would establish a more powerful and effective national government