ap music theory ap cram sessions 2021 study guides

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a sound and is determined by the frequency of vibration
• Interval measures the distance between two pitches and can be melodic (played sequentially) or harmonic (played simultaneously)
  • Intervals are classified as perfect, major, minor, augmented, or diminished based on their size and quality
• Scale is a sequence of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order, typically spanning an octave
  • Major and minor scales are the most common in Western music (C major, A minor)
• Chord is a combination of three or more pitches played simultaneously, built on a root note
  • Triads are the most basic chords, consisting of a root, third, and fifth (C major triad: C, E, G)
• Cadence is a melodic or harmonic formula that creates a sense of resolution or tension at the end of a phrase or section
  • Authentic cadences (V-I) provide a strong sense of resolution, while deceptive cadences (V-vi) create tension

Music Theory Fundamentals

• Notes are the building blocks of music, representing specific pitches and durations
  • Note names (A, B, C, D, E, F, G) correspond to the white keys on a piano keyboard
  • Accidentals (sharps, flats, and naturals) modify the pitch of a note by a half step
• Clefs indicate the pitch range of the staff and determine the note names for each line and space
  • Treble clef (G clef) is used for higher-pitched instruments, while bass clef (F clef) is used for lower-pitched instruments
• Time signatures specify the number of beats per measure and the note value that receives one beat
  • Simple time signatures (4/4, 3/4, 2/4) have a divisible-by-2 number of beats per measure, while compound time signatures (6/8, 9/8, 12/8) have a divisible-by-3 number of beats per measure
• Key signatures indicate the sharps or flats used in a piece of music, determining the overall tonality
  • Major key signatures have a bright, happy sound, while minor key signatures have a darker, more melancholic sound (C major, A minor)

Harmonic Analysis Techniques

• Roman numeral analysis assigns a Roman numeral to each chord in a progression based on its scale degree and quality
  • Uppercase numerals (I, IV, V) represent major chords, while lowercase numerals (ii, iii, vi) represent minor chords
  • Seventh chords are indicated with a superscript 7 (V7), and inversions are denoted with figured bass symbols (I6, ii6/5)
• Functional harmony categorizes chords based on their role in a progression, such as tonic (I), subdominant (IV), and dominant (V)
  • Secondary dominants are chords that temporarily tonicize a non-tonic chord (V/V, V/ii)
• Modulation is the process of changing from one key to another within a piece of music
  • Common modulation techniques include pivot chord modulation, direct modulation, and sequential modulation
• Harmonic rhythm refers to the rate at which chords change in a progression, which can affect the overall tension and release
  • Faster harmonic rhythms create a sense of forward motion, while slower harmonic rhythms provide stability (one chord per measure vs. one chord per beat)

Melodic and Rhythmic Elements

• Melody is a succession of pitches that form a recognizable tune or theme
  • Melodic contour describes the overall shape of a melody, such as ascending, descending, or undulating
  • Melodic intervals and leaps contribute to the character and memorability of a melody (perfect fifth leap in "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star")
• Rhythm is the organization of musical sounds and silences in time, often characterized by patterns of duration and accent
  • Syncopation occurs when accents are placed on weak beats or offbeats, creating a sense of rhythmic tension (ragtime, jazz)
• Meter is the recurring pattern of strong and weak beats in music, which can be simple (duple, triple) or compound (quadruple, sextuple)
  • Polymeter occurs when different layers of music have conflicting meter, creating rhythmic complexity (African drumming)
• Tempo refers to the speed or pace of a piece of music, typically indicated by Italian terms or metronome markings
  • Accelerando and ritardando are gradual changes in tempo, while rubato involves expressive fluctuations in tempo (Chopin's piano works)

Compositional Structures

• Phrase is a musical unit that typically consists of four or eight measures and ends with a cadence
  • Antecedent and consequent phrases form a period, with the antecedent ending on a weak cadence and the consequent ending on a strong cadence
• Form refers to the overall structure and organization of a piece of music, often based on the repetition and contrast of sections
  • Binary form (AB) consists of two contrasting sections, while ternary form (ABA) features a return to the initial section after a contrasting middle section
  • Sonata form is a complex structure commonly used in the first movements of symphonies and string quartets (exposition, development, recapitulation)
• Motive is a short melodic or rhythmic idea that serves as a building block for a larger composition
  • Motivic development techniques include repetition, variation, fragmentation, and sequencing (Beethoven's Fifth Symphony)
• Texture describes the layering and interaction of musical elements, such as melody, harmony, and rhythm
  • Monophonic texture features a single melodic line, while homophonic texture consists of a melody supported by chords (chorale)
  • Polyphonic texture involves multiple independent melodic lines, often creating counterpoint (fugue)

Ear Training and Sight-Singing

• Interval recognition involves identifying the distance between two pitches by ear, both melodically and harmonically
  • Strategies for interval recognition include associating intervals with familiar songs and focusing on the characteristic sound of each interval (perfect fifth: "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star")
• Chord identification requires recognizing the quality and inversion of chords based on their sound
  • Techniques for chord identification include listening for the bass note, the color of the chord, and the presence of dissonance (major vs. minor, root position vs. first inversion)
• Melodic dictation is the process of notating a melody after hearing it played or sung
  • Strategies for melodic dictation include identifying the key, meter, and rhythmic patterns, as well as focusing on the contour and intervals of the melody
• Sight-singing involves performing a piece of music from written notation without prior rehearsal
  • Techniques for sight-singing include identifying the key signature and time signature, analyzing the melodic and rhythmic patterns, and using solfège or scale-degree numbers (movable-do system)

Practice Strategies and Exam Tips

• Consistent and focused practice is essential for mastering music theory concepts and developing ear training skills
  • Create a structured practice schedule that includes both written exercises and listening activities
  • Break complex concepts into smaller, manageable parts and practice them individually before combining them
• Utilize a variety of resources, such as textbooks, online tutorials, and practice exams, to reinforce your understanding
  • Analyze scores of various musical styles and genres to apply theoretical concepts in context
• When taking the AP Music Theory exam, manage your time effectively by answering easier questions first and returning to more challenging ones later
  • Read each question carefully and eliminate incorrect answer choices before selecting the best option
  • Double-check your work for errors in notation, terminology, and analysis

Advanced Topics and Applications

• Chromatic harmony involves the use of chords and tones outside the diatonic scale, creating colorful and expressive sonorities
  • Neapolitan sixth chords (bII6) and augmented sixth chords (Ger+6, It+6, Fr+6) are common chromatic chords used for harmonic variety and modulation
• Twelve-tone technique is a compositional method that uses all twelve pitches of the chromatic scale in a predetermined order (tone row) to create atonal music
  • Composers such as Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern developed and employed twelve-tone technique in their works (Schoenberg's Piano Suite, Op. 25)
• Jazz harmony extends traditional Western harmony by incorporating seventh chords, extended chords (9th, 11th, 13th), and altered chords (b9, #11)
  • Jazz progressions often feature ii-V-I sequences, tritone substitutions, and modal borrowing (Miles Davis' "So What")
• Music technology and software, such as notation programs (Sibelius, Finale) and digital audio workstations (Pro Tools, Logic), have revolutionized the way music is composed, performed, and produced
  • MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) allows electronic instruments and computers to communicate and synchronize with each other, enabling complex arrangements and performances