ancient mediterranean unit 10 study guides

Historical Context

• Ancient Greece consisted of independent city-states (poleis) often in conflict with each other
• Macedon, located in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, was initially seen as a backwater kingdom by the more advanced Greek city-states
• The Persian Empire, under the Achaemenid dynasty, was the dominant power in the region
  • Persia had made several attempts to conquer the Greek city-states (Persian Wars)
• The Greek city-states, particularly Athens and Sparta, had weakened each other through the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE)
• The Macedonian kingdom had a strong military tradition and a well-organized army
• Macedon's strategic location allowed it to control important trade routes and access valuable resources (timber, gold, silver)

Rise of Macedon

• Macedon's rise to power began under King Amyntas III (r. 393-370 BCE) who initiated reforms and strengthened the kingdom
• Amyntas III's son, Philip II, ascended to the throne in 359 BCE and transformed Macedon into a major power
• Philip II introduced the Macedonian phalanx, a military formation that proved highly effective against the Greek city-states
  • The phalanx consisted of soldiers armed with long spears (sarissas) and shields, arranged in a tight formation
• Philip II also reformed the Macedonian army, creating a professional standing army loyal to the king
• Through a combination of military conquests and diplomatic alliances, Philip II brought most of the Greek city-states under Macedonian control
  • Key victories include the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE) against Athens and Thebes
• Philip II established the League of Corinth, a federation of Greek states under Macedonian leadership, to maintain control over Greece

Philip II's Reign

• Philip II's reign (359-336 BCE) marked a turning point in Macedonian history
• He implemented significant military reforms, including the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx and the creation of a professional army
• Philip II expanded Macedonian territory through a series of successful military campaigns
  • He conquered the neighboring regions of Thrace, Illyria, and Paeonia
• He also employed diplomacy and political marriages to strengthen Macedon's position
  • Philip II married Olympias, an Epirote princess, who would become the mother of Alexander the Great
• Philip II's control over the Pangaean Mountains provided access to valuable gold and silver mines, boosting Macedon's economy
• He founded new cities (Philippi) and encouraged Greek culture and learning in Macedon
• Philip II planned to invade the Persian Empire but was assassinated in 336 BCE before he could embark on the campaign

Alexander's Early Years

• Alexander III, later known as Alexander the Great, was born in 356 BCE to Philip II and Olympias
• He received a comprehensive education under the tutelage of the renowned philosopher Aristotle
  • Alexander studied subjects such as philosophy, literature, science, and military strategy
• From a young age, Alexander displayed exceptional military skills and leadership qualities
  • He tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, which became his faithful companion
• At the age of 16, Alexander was left in charge of Macedon while Philip II was on campaign
  • He successfully defended the kingdom against a Thracian rebellion
• Alexander accompanied his father on military campaigns, gaining valuable experience and proving his abilities
• After Philip II's assassination in 336 BCE, Alexander ascended to the Macedonian throne at the age of 20
• He quickly consolidated his power by eliminating potential rivals and securing the loyalty of the army

Alexander's Conquests

• Alexander the Great embarked on a series of military campaigns that greatly expanded the Macedonian Empire
• His first major victory was at the Battle of the Granicus River (334 BCE) against the Persian satraps in Asia Minor
• Alexander then marched through Anatolia, liberating Greek cities and establishing Macedonian control
• The decisive battle against the Persian king Darius III occurred at Issus (333 BCE), where Alexander's tactical brilliance led to a resounding victory
• Alexander captured the Phoenician city of Tyre after a lengthy siege (332 BCE), demonstrating his determination and military prowess
• He then conquered Egypt, where he founded the city of Alexandria and was proclaimed pharaoh
• The final defeat of Darius III came at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE), after which Alexander seized the Persian capital of Persepolis
• Alexander continued his eastward expansion, conquering Bactria, Sogdiana, and parts of modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan
  • He founded numerous cities along the way, named Alexandria, to serve as centers of Greek culture
• Alexander's troops, exhausted from years of campaigning, mutinied at the Hyphasis River (326 BCE), refusing to march further east
• Alexander reluctantly turned back, leading his army through the harsh Gedrosian Desert on the return journey to Babylon

Empire Administration

• Alexander the Great's empire stretched from the Balkans to the Indus Valley, encompassing diverse cultures and peoples
• To maintain control over his vast empire, Alexander adopted a policy of cultural fusion (syncretism)
  • He encouraged intermarriage between Macedonians and Persians to create a unified ruling class
  • Alexander himself married Roxana, a Bactrian princess, and adopted Persian dress and customs
• Alexander appointed trusted generals (Companions) as satraps to govern the various provinces of his empire
  • He allowed local customs and religions to continue, as long as they did not challenge his authority
• Alexander founded numerous cities, many named Alexandria, to serve as administrative centers and to spread Greek culture
• He introduced a standardized currency, the silver drachma, to facilitate trade and economic integration
• Alexander's empire was connected by an extensive network of roads and ports, enabling the flow of goods, ideas, and people
• However, Alexander's untimely death in 323 BCE led to a power struggle among his generals (Diadochi) and the eventual fragmentation of his empire

Cultural Impact

• Alexander the Great's conquests had a profound impact on the cultural landscape of the ancient world
• The spread of Greek culture, known as Hellenization, occurred throughout the conquered territories
  • Greek became the lingua franca of the empire, facilitating communication and cultural exchange
• The fusion of Greek and Near Eastern cultures gave rise to the Hellenistic civilization
  • Hellenistic art, architecture, and literature blended Greek and local elements, creating a unique aesthetic
• The city of Alexandria in Egypt became a major center of learning, with its renowned Library of Alexandria housing a vast collection of scrolls
• Hellenistic philosophy, such as Stoicism and Epicureanism, emerged and gained popularity
• Scientific and technological advancements were made in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine
  • The work of scholars like Euclid, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes flourished during this period
• The exchange of ideas and knowledge between the Greek world and the East led to a more cosmopolitan and interconnected world

Legacy and Aftermath

• Alexander the Great's legacy had a lasting impact on the ancient world and beyond
• His military conquests and the resulting Hellenistic civilization shaped the political, cultural, and intellectual landscape for centuries
• The division of Alexander's empire among his generals (Diadochi) led to the formation of several Hellenistic kingdoms
  • The Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the Near East, and the Antigonid Kingdom in Macedon
• The Hellenistic period saw the flourishing of art, science, and philosophy, with advancements that influenced later civilizations
• Alexander's military tactics and strategies were studied and admired by future generals and rulers
  • His use of the Macedonian phalanx and cavalry, as well as his ability to adapt to different battlefield conditions, set a new standard in warfare
• The legend of Alexander the Great inspired countless works of art, literature, and folklore throughout history
  • He became a symbol of military genius, leadership, and the pursuit of glory
• However, Alexander's empire did not survive long after his death, as it was divided among his generals and eventually conquered by the rising power of Rome
• Despite the collapse of his empire, Alexander the Great's legacy endured, leaving an indelible mark on the world and shaping the course of history