Glossary

12.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

2 min read•july 24, 2024

Gravity's invisible pull shapes our universe, from falling apples to orbiting planets. explains how this force works, revealing the mathematical relationship between , , and gravitational attraction.

Understanding gravity's and calculating its strength are crucial skills. We'll explore how scientists measure the gravitational constant and discuss the far-reaching implications of this fundamental force in physics and astronomy.

Gravitational Force and Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Inverse square law of gravitation

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  • Force decreases as square of distance increases F∝1r2F \propto \frac{1}{r^2}
  • Hyperbolic curve on force vs distance plot illustrates relationship
  • Gravitational field spreads out in 3D, strength dilutes with increasing distance
  • Similar inverse square relationships in nature (light intensity, electric field strength)

Calculation of gravitational force

  • Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation formula F=Gm1m2r2F = G\frac{m_1m_2}{r^2}
  • Variables: FF (force in N), GG (gravitational constant 6.67×10−11N⋅m2/kg26.67 \times 10^{-11} N\cdot m^2/kg^2), m1m_1 and m2m_2 (masses in kg), rr (distance in m)
  • Calculate by identifying masses and distance, plugging into equation, solving for FF
  • Dimensional analysis ensures correct units
  • Applies to various scenarios (planetary orbits, , )

Experimental determination of G

  • (1798) used torsion balance to measure tiny forces between lead spheres
  • Setup: large and small lead spheres on horizontal rod suspended by thin fiber
  • Process: observed rod deflection, calculated
  • G calculated using measured force, known masses, and sphere distances
  • Modern methods include beam balance experiments and atom interferometry
  • Challenges: extremely small G value, sensitivity to environmental factors

Universality of gravitational law

  • Applies to all objects from microscopic to cosmic scales
  • Unified terrestrial and celestial physics, challenged aristotelian worldview
  • Enabled predictions (Neptune discovery, planetary motions)
  • Limited at extreme scales, extended by Einstein's general relativity
  • Introduced concepts of and
  • Technological applications (GPS, space exploration)
  • Cosmological implications for universe structure, galactic dynamics, dark matter

Key Terms to Review (17)

Action at a distance: Action at a distance refers to the phenomenon where an object can exert a force on another object without any physical contact between them. This concept is crucial in understanding how gravitational forces operate, as masses influence each other across space even when they are separated by vast distances. It challenges our intuitive understanding of forces and interactions, suggesting that the effects of forces can occur over a distance without direct physical interaction.
Cavendish Experiment: The Cavendish Experiment is a scientific experiment conducted by Henry Cavendish in 1798 to measure the force of gravitational attraction between masses and determine the density of the Earth. This groundbreaking experiment provided one of the first quantitative measurements of gravitational force, allowing scientists to calculate the gravitational constant and significantly advancing the understanding of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
Distance: Distance is a scalar quantity that represents the total length of the path traveled by an object in motion, regardless of direction. It is essential in understanding how far an object moves from its initial position and is measured in units such as meters or kilometers. Distance plays a crucial role in the analysis of motion, allowing for the calculation of speed, velocity, and acceleration, as well as understanding gravitational interactions.
F = g(m1*m2)/r^2: This equation represents Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, which describes the gravitational force (f) between two masses (m1 and m2) separated by a distance (r). The constant g is the gravitational constant, which determines the strength of the gravitational force. This formula illustrates how mass and distance affect gravitational attraction, indicating that larger masses attract each other more strongly, while increasing distance weakens the force between them.
Force (f): Force is a vector quantity that represents an interaction that causes an object to change its velocity, including both speed and direction. This interaction can arise from various sources, such as gravity, friction, tension, and applied forces. In the context of motion, force is crucial in understanding how objects respond to external influences and is quantitatively expressed using Newton's laws.
Gravitational constant (g): The gravitational constant, denoted as 'g', is a physical constant that describes the acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface. It has a standard value of approximately 9.81 m/s² and is fundamental in understanding how objects interact under the force of gravity, impacting calculations related to mass, weight, and gravitational attraction between bodies.
Gravitational fields: Gravitational fields are regions of space around a mass where another mass experiences a force of attraction. This concept helps explain how gravity operates over distances and is crucial in understanding how objects interact with one another, especially in the context of celestial bodies and their orbits.
Gravitational force: Gravitational force is the attractive force that acts between any two masses in the universe, proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. This fundamental force governs how objects interact with each other, influencing motion, energy, and stability in various systems.
Henry Cavendish: Henry Cavendish was an 18th-century British scientist known for his pioneering work in the field of physics and chemistry, particularly for his experiments related to gravity and the composition of gases. His most notable contribution is the measurement of the Earth's density, which he accomplished through an innovative experiment using a torsion balance, laying the groundwork for Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
Inverse Square Law: The inverse square law states that the strength of a physical quantity, such as gravity or light, is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. This means that as you move farther away from the source, the effect diminishes rapidly, specifically following the mathematical relationship where if distance doubles, the effect becomes one-fourth.
Isaac Newton: Isaac Newton was a renowned mathematician and physicist who is best known for formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation. His work laid the foundation for classical mechanics, influencing how we understand the motion of objects, forces acting upon them, and the conservation of energy in various systems.
Kepler's Laws: Kepler's Laws are three fundamental principles that describe the motion of planets around the Sun. These laws highlight the elliptical orbits of planets, the relationship between a planet's orbital period and its distance from the Sun, and the areas swept by a planet as it orbits. They provide a mathematical framework for understanding planetary motion and laid the groundwork for Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
Mass: Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object, typically expressed in kilograms or grams. It is a fundamental property that affects how an object interacts with forces, influencing its acceleration and energy. The concept of mass is crucial for understanding how objects move and interact under various conditions, from basic units of measurement to gravitational influences across the universe.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation states that every point mass attracts every other point mass in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. This foundational principle connects gravity to the motion of celestial bodies and underlies the orbits of planets, moons, and artificial satellites, revealing how gravitational forces govern the dynamics of the universe.
Satellite motion: Satellite motion refers to the movement of an object, such as a satellite, around a larger body due to gravitational forces. This motion can be understood in terms of both uniform circular motion, where the satellite travels in a circular path at a constant speed, and the principles of universal gravitation, which govern the attractive force between the satellite and the central body it orbits. The balance between this gravitational pull and the satellite's inertia allows it to maintain a stable orbit.
Tidal forces: Tidal forces are the gravitational interactions between two celestial bodies that result in variations in the gravitational pull experienced by different parts of a body. This phenomenon occurs primarily due to the differences in gravitational strength exerted on the near and far sides of the affected body, which leads to stretching and deformation. Tidal forces are crucial for understanding orbital motion, the behavior of moons, and how celestial bodies interact with one another under the influence of gravity.
Torque: Torque is a measure of the rotational force applied to an object, which causes it to rotate around an axis. It depends not only on the magnitude of the force applied but also on the distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is applied, known as the lever arm. Understanding torque is crucial as it directly influences angular acceleration and is a key factor in various physical phenomena, including rolling motion, gyroscopic effects, and gravitational interactions.
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