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Intro to Political Science
Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Political Behavior: Human Nature in Action
2.1 What Goals Should We Seek in Politics?
2.2 Why Do Humans Make the Political Choices That They Do?
2.3 Human Behavior Is Partially Predictable
2.4 The Importance of Context for Political Decisions

Political philosophy grapples with fundamental questions about government, power, and the individual-state relationship. It explores the purpose of government, how power should be distributed, and the balance between personal freedom and societal obligations.

Key concepts like liberty, equality, and justice are defined and examined. These ideas form the foundation for different political systems and shape our understanding of social justice, influencing policy decisions and societal structures.

Fundamental Questions and Goals in Political Philosophy

Core questions of political philosophy

  • Explores the purpose of government
    • Protects individual rights (freedom of speech, property rights)
    • Maintains social order by enforcing laws and preventing chaos
    • Promotes the common good through policies benefiting society as a whole (public education, infrastructure)
  • Examines how power should be distributed and exercised
    • Determines who should have the authority to make decisions (elected officials, experts, citizens)
    • Sets limits on government power to prevent abuse and tyranny (constitutional rights, checks and balances)
  • Investigates the relationship between the individual and the state
    • Balances individual freedom with societal obligations and responsibilities
    • Considers how much personal liberty individuals should have (privacy rights, freedom of choice)
    • Defines the duties and obligations individuals owe to society (paying taxes, obeying laws, civic participation)
    • Explores the concept of social contract as a basis for political legitimacy

Definitions of key political concepts

  • Liberty encompasses both negative and positive aspects
    • Negative liberty is freedom from external constraints or interference (freedom of speech, freedom of religion)
    • Positive liberty involves having the means and opportunities to fulfill one's potential (access to education, healthcare)
  • Equality can be understood in formal, substantive, and outcome-based terms
    • Formal equality ensures equal treatment under the law regardless of personal characteristics (race, gender, religion)
    • Substantive equality aims to provide equal access to resources and opportunities (education, employment)
    • Equality of outcome focuses on ensuring equal results or distribution of goods (income, wealth)
  • Justice encompasses procedural, distributive, and retributive aspects
    • Procedural justice ensures fair processes and consistent application of rules (due process, equal protection)
    • Distributive justice seeks fair allocation of resources and benefits across society (progressive taxation, social welfare)
    • Retributive justice involves appropriate punishment for wrongdoing and crimes (proportional sentencing, rehabilitation)

Foundations of Political Systems

  • Rule of law ensures that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to the same laws
  • Democracy as a system of government where power is vested in the people through free and fair elections
  • Civil rights protect individuals from discrimination and ensure equal treatment under the law

Conceptions of Social Justice and Their Implications

Conceptions of social justice

  • Utilitarianism aims to maximize overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number
    • Supports policies that produce the best outcomes for society as a whole (public healthcare, poverty reduction)
    • Focuses on aggregate welfare rather than individual rights or fairness
  • Libertarianism prioritizes the protection of individual liberty and property rights
    • Advocates for minimal government intervention and free market principles (deregulation, privatization)
    • Values personal responsibility and self-reliance over collective action
  • Egalitarianism seeks to ensure equal opportunities and reduce inequalities
    • Promotes redistributive policies and affirmative action to level the playing field (progressive taxation, diversity quotas)
    • Emphasizes fairness and social justice over individual merit or market outcomes
  • Communitarianism emphasizes the common good and shared values of the community
    • Supports policies that prioritize social cohesion and collective responsibility (civic education, community service)
    • Values the role of tradition, culture, and social norms in shaping individual behavior

Political theory vs practical application

  • Utilitarianism in practice
    1. Employs cost-benefit analysis in policy-making to maximize overall utility
    2. Implements progressive taxation and welfare programs to redistribute wealth and improve social welfare
  • Libertarianism in practice
    1. Deregulates industries and markets to reduce government interference and promote economic freedom
    2. Privatizes public services to increase efficiency and individual choice
    3. Lowers taxes and limits government spending to minimize redistribution and protect property rights
  • Egalitarianism in practice
    1. Implements progressive taxation and social welfare programs to reduce income inequality and provide a social safety net
    2. Enacts anti-discrimination laws and affirmative action policies to combat systemic inequalities and promote diversity
    3. Provides public funding for education and healthcare to ensure equal access and opportunities for all
  • Communitarianism in practice
    1. Promotes policies that foster social cohesion and shared values (national service, cultural preservation)
    2. Encourages civic engagement and community participation through local decision-making and volunteerism
    3. Supports decentralization of power to empower local communities and promote subsidiarity

Key Terms to Review (62)

Marxist: A Marxist is someone who adheres to the political, economic, and social theories of Karl Marx, which primarily argue that societies progress through a class struggle between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class), leading towards a classless society where property is publicly owned. These theories critique capitalism and support revolutionary action to overthrow this system in favor of socialism and eventually communism.
On Liberty: "On Liberty" is a philosophical work by John Stuart Mill published in 1859, advocating for the protection of individual freedoms against societal norms and government intervention, as long as those actions do not harm others. It emphasizes the importance of free speech, thought, and individuality within the context of civil liberties discussed in constitutions.
Rule of law: The rule of law is a principle under which all persons, institutions, and entities are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced, and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights principles. It ensures that no one is above the law, providing a framework for safeguarding individual liberties and maintaining social order.
Du Bois: W.E.B. Du Bois was an American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, and editor who played a pivotal role in the development of political ideology and activism concerning African-American rights and identity during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His works and theories challenge the socio-political structures that marginalized Black Americans, advocating for equal rights, education, and political representation.
Altruistic democracy: Altruistic democracy is a political system where decision-making prioritizes the welfare and interests of the entire community over individual gains, ensuring policies and actions are designed for the common good. In this model, the media plays a crucial role in informing citizens about issues that affect society as a whole, encouraging public participation and accountability.
Cost-benefit analysis: Cost-benefit analysis is a systematic process used to evaluate the advantages (benefits) and disadvantages (costs) associated with a particular action or policy decision, particularly in the context of political governance and policy-making. It aims to determine the best course of action by weighing the total expected benefits against the total expected costs.
Marx: Karl Marx was a 19th-century philosopher, economist, and political theorist whose ideas laid the foundation for Marxism, a theory that critiques capitalism and advocates for a classless society where resources are owned communally. His works, notably "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das Kapital," analyze the effects of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development.
Rawls’s theory of justice: Rawls's theory of justice, proposed by philosopher John Rawls, advocates for a society where the fairest distribution of resources and opportunities is ensured through two principles of justice. These principles prioritize basic rights and liberties for all while permitting social and economic inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.
Congress of Racial Equality: The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) is a U.S. civil rights organization that played a pivotal role in the Civil Rights Movement, advocating for the eradication of racial segregation and discrimination through nonviolent protests and actions. Founded in 1942, it was instrumental in organizing the Freedom Rides, sit-ins, and marches to challenge racial inequality.
Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher who is best known for his work in political philosophy, particularly his book "Leviathan," where he discusses the structure of society and legitimate government. Hobbes believed in the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the chaos and violence he thought natural to human life in the state of nature.
Political psychology: Political psychology examines how psychological factors influence political behaviors and attitudes, and how political events impact individuals psychologically. It integrates concepts from psychology to understand the decision-making processes of politicians, the influence of leaders on the public, and why individuals hold certain political beliefs.
Hume: David Hume was an 18th-century Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist known for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. In the context of political science, Hume’s ideas challenge the notion of absolute sovereignty and emphasize the importance of consent and convention in politics.
Ida B. Wells Society for Investigative Reporting: The Ida B. Wells Society for Investigative Reporting is an organization dedicated to increasing and retaining reporters and editors of color in the field of investigative reporting. It emphasizes training, support, and resources for journalists to pursue investigative projects that seek truth and report on issues affecting underrepresented communities.
15th Amendment: The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Ratified on February 3, 1870, it was a significant milestone in the effort to ensure African Americans had the right to participate in the political process.
Okin: Susan Moller Okin was a political philosopher known for her work in feminist theory and her contributions to discussions on gender equality in political contexts. Her work critically examines how traditional theories of justice have overlooked the family's role and gender inequalities, arguing for more inclusive approaches to political theory.
Hayek: Friedrich Hayek was an Austrian-British economist and philosopher known for his defense of classical liberalism and free-market capitalism, emphasizing the importance of individual liberty and the dangers of government intervention. His work significantly influenced the development of neoliberal thought and policies in the late 20th century.
Erdoğan: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is a Turkish politician serving as the president of Turkey since 2014, previously holding the position of Prime Minister from 2003 to 2014. His leadership has been marked by significant political and economic reforms but also criticized for authoritarian practices and undermining judicial independence.
Locke: John Locke was a 17th-century English philosopher who laid much of the groundwork for the Enlightenment and contributed significantly to the development of political philosophy. His theories on life, liberty, property, and the social contract have influenced modern political thought, especially liberalism.
Libertarianism: Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty as its key principle, advocating minimal state intervention in the lives of citizens. It supports free-market capitalism, private property rights, and the reduction of government powers to only those necessary to protect individual freedom.
Wells: In the realm of political science, "Wells" metaphorically represents sources from which societies draw their core goals and values that guide political actions and decisions. These include aspirations like liberty, equality, justice, and security, which are foundational to a society's political framework.
King: A king is a male monarch who is the supreme ruler of a kingdom, often inheriting the position through hereditary lines or dynastic succession. Kings wield significant power and authority, their rule typically encompassing both political and sometimes religious leadership within their realms.
Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi was a leader in India's non-violent struggle for independence from British rule, emphasizing civil disobedience as a means to achieve political and social reform. His philosophy of Satyagraha, or insistence on the truth, sought to change societal injustices through peaceful methods.
Social contract: A social contract is an implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, such as protection and security, by sacrificing some individual freedoms for state protection. It outlines the rights and responsibilities of the government and its citizens to ensure societal stability and order.
Sanders: In the context of political science, "Sanders" refers to Bernie Sanders, a prominent American politician and senator known for his influence on contemporary political discourse, especially regarding issues like healthcare reform, economic inequality, and environmental policies. His campaigns and political stance have significantly impacted how individuals participate in politics beyond voting, by encouraging activism, grassroots campaigning, and public discourse on policy reforms.
Means of production: The means of production are the physical, non-human inputs used for the production of economic value, such as factories, machines, and tools. In political science, this concept often explores who controls these resources and how that control influences societal structure and political power.
Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is a moral and political philosophy that suggests the best action or policy is the one that maximizes happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. It evaluates the morality of an action based on its outcomes, emphasizing the collective well-being over individual interests.
Rational: In the context of political science, rational refers to behavior or decision-making based on logical reasoning and aimed at maximizing personal or collective benefits. It assumes individuals make choices that they believe will give them the greatest advantage or satisfaction.
Representative democracies: Representative democracies are systems of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. These representatives create and vote on laws, policies, and other governance matters, reflecting the will and interests of the people who elected them.
Washington: In the context of political science, Washington often symbolizes the United States federal government and its operations. It is used as a metonym to refer to the political decision-making processes, policies, and the administration based in the U.S. capital.
Churchill: Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill was a British statesman who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II and again in the early 1950s. His leadership is noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts that inspired British resistance against Nazi Germany, making him a prominent figure in political history for his strategic and motivational role in politics.
Rawls: John Rawls was an American political philosopher in the 20th century who proposed a theory of justice based on fairness and equality. His approach suggests that societal structures should be organized in such a way that they benefit the least advantaged members of society.
Feminist: A feminist is someone who advocates for and supports the equality of the sexes, particularly in political, social, and economic spheres. They work toward correcting systemic gender imbalances and promoting women's rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes.
Nussbaum: Martha Nussbaum is a contemporary philosopher and professor who has significantly contributed to political philosophy, particularly in the context of ethics, emotions, and human rights. Her work emphasizes the importance of recognizing and fostering human capabilities as a foundation for democratic principles and policies.
Engels: Friedrich Engels was a 19th-century German philosopher, social scientist, and journalist who, alongside Karl Marx, co-developed the theory of communism. He played a critical role in the development of dialectical materialism and the critique of capitalist societies.
Lynching: Lynching is an act of violence, typically murder, carried out by a mob against an individual without legal trial or due process, often motivated by racial prejudice or vigilantism. It has historically been used as a tool of oppression and control, particularly in the context of racial tensions in the United States.
19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution granted American women the right to vote, a landmark victory in the women's suffrage movement. Ratified on August 18, 1920, it marked a significant step towards gender equality in political participation.
COVID-19: COVID-19 is a highly infectious disease caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, first identified in December 2019. It has led to a global pandemic affecting millions, with symptoms ranging from mild respiratory issues to severe illness and death.
Direct democracy: Direct democracy is a form of government in which citizens participate directly in decision making without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials. It allows people to vote on policies and laws directly, rather than through representatives.
Political elites: Political elites are individuals or groups that hold a disproportionate amount of power and influence within a political system. They often shape policy, control significant resources, and have privileged access to decision-making processes.
Inalienable: Inalienable rights are freedoms and liberties that cannot be taken away or transferred from a person. They are inherent to every individual and recognized under constitutions to ensure the protection of personal freedoms.
Justice: Justice is a fundamental principle of fairness, equity, and moral rightness that guides the fair and proper administration of power. It is a concept central to political philosophy, addressing how society should be organized and how the benefits and burdens of cooperation should be distributed among its members.
Negative Liberty: Negative liberty refers to the absence of external constraints or interference, allowing individuals to act freely without hindrance or coercion from others or the state. It emphasizes the freedom to do or not do something without being prevented or punished.
Procedural Justice: Procedural justice refers to the fairness and transparency of the processes and procedures used to make decisions and resolve disputes within a political or legal system. It focuses on ensuring that the decision-making methods are unbiased, consistent, and respectful of individual rights.
Civil Rights: Civil rights refer to the fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to all individuals within a society, regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or other characteristics. These rights protect individuals from discrimination and ensure their equal treatment under the law, enabling them to fully participate in political, economic, and social life.
Formal Equality: Formal equality is the principle that all people should be treated equally under the law, without regard to individual differences. It emphasizes equal treatment and non-discrimination, ensuring that the law applies equally to everyone regardless of their personal characteristics or circumstances.
Equality of Outcome: Equality of outcome is a political concept that emphasizes the goal of ensuring that all individuals or groups in a society achieve the same material wealth, status, and other social goods, regardless of individual talent, effort, or circumstance. It is often contrasted with the idea of equality of opportunity, which focuses on providing equal chances for people to succeed rather than equal results.
Communitarianism: Communitarianism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of community in shaping individual identity and moral values. It challenges the individualistic approach of liberalism and instead focuses on the collective well-being and responsibilities of the community as a whole.
Political Legitimacy: Political legitimacy refers to the acceptance and justification of a political authority or system by the people it governs. It is the belief that the governing authority has the right to exercise power and that the people are obligated to obey its decisions and directives.
Substantive Equality: Substantive equality refers to the idea that true equality goes beyond just formal, legal equality and requires addressing underlying social, economic, and political inequalities to ensure that all individuals have the opportunity to fully participate in society and achieve their full potential. It is a more comprehensive approach to equality that focuses on achieving real, meaningful outcomes rather than just ensuring equal treatment on paper.
Positive Liberty: Positive liberty refers to the freedom to actively participate in one's political or social life and to realize one's essential nature. It is the ability to be self-determining and to take part in the decisions that govern one's life, in contrast to the mere absence of external constraints, which is known as negative liberty.
Common Good: The common good refers to the public interest or the wellbeing of the entire community, rather than the private interests of individuals or groups. It is a fundamental concept in political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of collective benefit over individual gain.
Distributive Justice: Distributive justice is a concept that focuses on the fair and equitable distribution of societal resources, benefits, and burdens among the members of a community. It is concerned with ensuring that individuals and groups receive their fair share of the advantages and disadvantages within a given system.
Democracy: Democracy is a political system in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through elected representatives. It is a form of government where the people have the authority to choose their own political leaders and make decisions that affect their lives.
Liberty: Liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views. It is a fundamental human right that allows individuals to exercise self-determination and make choices without undue interference from the government or other entities.
Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that holds that the morally right course of action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It is a consequentialist theory that judges the morality of an action based on its outcomes rather than the action's adherence to a rule or the actor's intentions.
Social Justice: Social justice is the fair and equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and responsibilities within a society. It is a philosophical concept that emphasizes the importance of addressing systemic inequalities and promoting the well-being of all members of a community, regardless of their social, economic, or political status.
Equality: Equality is the principle of treating all individuals or groups of people the same, without discrimination or favoritism. It is a fundamental concept in political science that relates to the fair and just distribution of rights, opportunities, and resources within a society.
Social Contract: The social contract is a philosophical concept that outlines the implicit agreement between a government and its citizens, where individuals surrender certain rights and freedoms in exchange for the protection and order provided by a governing authority. This term is central to understanding the foundations of political legitimacy, the role of the state, and the relationship between the individual and the collective.
Rule of Law: The rule of law is a fundamental principle that requires all individuals, institutions, and the government itself to be accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced, and independently adjudicated. It ensures that no one, including those in power, is above the law and that the law applies equally to all. The rule of law is a cornerstone of a well-functioning democratic society, as it upholds principles of equality, fairness, and justice.
Egalitarianism: Egalitarianism is the belief that all people are equal and deserve equal rights, opportunities, and social status, regardless of individual differences. This principle is central to discussions around political goals and the role of government in promoting equality.
Libertarianism: Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, limited government, and free-market capitalism. It prioritizes personal and economic freedoms, with the belief that individuals should have the right to make their own choices without excessive government interference.
Retributive Justice: Retributive justice is a theory of justice that focuses on punishing wrongdoers in proportion to their offenses. It emphasizes the need for accountability, with the belief that perpetrators should face consequences for their actions as a means of restoring balance and upholding societal norms.