European History – 1890 to 1945 Unit 2 Review: Society at the Century's Turn

Key Societal Changes

• Rapid urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities seeking industrial jobs led to overcrowding and poor living conditions in urban centers
• Rise of the middle class due to increased education and white-collar job opportunities created a new social stratum between the upper and working classes
• Women's roles began to shift as they sought greater independence, education, and suffrage rights, challenging traditional gender norms
• Population growth surged due to improved medical care, sanitation, and food supply, putting pressure on resources and infrastructure
• Increased literacy rates and access to education across social classes fostered a more informed and engaged citizenry
• Secularization gained momentum as scientific advancements and philosophical movements challenged religious authority and traditional beliefs
• Emigration from Europe to the Americas and other colonies intensified, driven by economic hardship and political instability at home

Technological Advancements

• Second Industrial Revolution introduced new technologies and production methods (assembly line, electricity, chemical synthesis) that transformed manufacturing and transportation
• Expansion of railroad networks facilitated the movement of goods, people, and ideas across Europe and beyond, fostering economic integration and cultural exchange
  • Total railroad mileage in Europe grew from 23,000 miles in 1850 to over 200,000 miles by 1900
• Advent of the telephone (1876) and radio (1895) revolutionized long-distance communication and laid the foundation for mass media
• Improvements in steel production (Bessemer process) and construction techniques (reinforced concrete) enabled the building of taller, more complex structures and infrastructure
• Advances in medicine, such as the development of antiseptics (carbolic acid), vaccines (rabies, anthrax), and X-rays (1895), improved public health and increased life expectancy
• Emergence of new fields, such as organic chemistry and electrical engineering, opened up novel avenues for scientific research and technological innovation
• Innovations in agriculture, including mechanization (tractors, reapers) and synthetic fertilizers (superphosphates), boosted crop yields and food production

Political Landscape

• Rise of nationalism and nation-states as dominant political forces, with unification movements in Germany (1871) and Italy (1861) reshaping the European map
• Proliferation of political ideologies, such as liberalism, conservatism, and socialism, each offering competing visions for society and government
• Expansion of suffrage rights, particularly for men, led to the growth of mass politics and the formation of political parties representing different social and economic interests
• Increasing tensions between European powers over colonial possessions, spheres of influence, and military alliances set the stage for future conflicts
• Emergence of labor movements and trade unions as workers sought better wages, working conditions, and political representation
• Growth of anti-Semitism and other forms of racial and ethnic prejudice, often fueled by nationalist and pseudo-scientific theories
• Gradual shift towards more democratic forms of government in some countries (France, Britain), while others remained under authoritarian rule (Russia, Austria-Hungary)

Economic Developments

• Second Industrial Revolution led to rapid economic growth, increased productivity, and the rise of new industries (chemicals, electricity, steel)
• Expansion of international trade and finance, facilitated by gold standard, free trade agreements, and the growth of global transportation networks
  • Value of European exports increased from £1.2 billion in 1870 to £3.3 billion by 1913
• Concentration of economic power in the hands of large corporations and financial institutions (cartels, trusts, banks) that dominated key sectors of the economy
• Widening economic disparities between industrialized and rural regions, as well as between the wealthy and the working classes
• Emergence of consumerism and mass marketing as rising incomes and production of affordable goods (ready-made clothing, canned food) transformed consumption patterns
• Growth of service sector industries, such as retail, banking, and tourism, which provided new employment opportunities and contributed to the expansion of the middle class
• Periodic economic crises and depressions (Long Depression of 1873-1896, Panic of 1907) exposed the vulnerabilities of the capitalist system and led to calls for reform

Cultural Movements

• Realism in art and literature depicted the lives of ordinary people and social issues, as seen in the works of Gustave Courbet, Honoré de Balzac, and Leo Tolstoy
• Impressionism revolutionized painting by capturing fleeting moments and natural light, exemplified by Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas
• Symbolism and Art Nouveau emphasized emotion, fantasy, and organic forms in reaction to the materialism and rationality of the industrial age
• Modernist movements, such as Cubism (Pablo Picasso) and Futurism (Filippo Tommaso Marinetti), broke with traditional artistic conventions and embraced experimentation and abstraction
• Rise of mass culture and entertainment, including music halls, dance halls, and early cinema, provided new forms of leisure and amusement for urban populations
• Proliferation of newspapers, magazines, and books, aided by advances in printing technology and rising literacy rates, created a more informed and interconnected public sphere
• Revival of folk traditions and national heritage as a response to the homogenizing effects of industrialization and globalization, seen in the Arts and Crafts movement and the collection of folk tales and music

Social Issues and Reforms

• Poverty and poor living conditions in urban slums led to the rise of social reform movements (settlement houses, charity organizations) that sought to alleviate suffering and promote moral uplift
• Child labor and exploitative working conditions in factories and mines prompted campaigns for labor regulations and protections (minimum age laws, maximum hour laws, safety standards)
• Women's suffrage movement gained momentum as women organized to demand the right to vote and equal political representation, with New Zealand becoming the first country to grant women's suffrage in 1893
• Education reforms aimed to expand access to schooling and improve the quality of instruction, such as the introduction of compulsory primary education and the establishment of public school systems
• Temperance movement sought to combat alcoholism and its social consequences through the promotion of abstinence and the prohibition of alcohol production and sale
• Public health initiatives, such as the construction of modern sewage systems and the promotion of personal hygiene, aimed to reduce the spread of infectious diseases and improve overall health outcomes
• Prison and asylum reforms emphasized rehabilitation and humane treatment of inmates and patients, as exemplified by the work of Elizabeth Fry and Dorothea Dix

Major Events and Turning Points

• Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) resulted in the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership and the collapse of the Second French Empire, shifting the balance of power in Europe
• Berlin Conference (1884-1885) regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, setting the stage for the "Scramble for Africa" and the exploitation of African resources and peoples
• Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) exposed deep-seated anti-Semitism in French society and politics, and highlighted the power of the press and public opinion in shaping national debates
• Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) marked the rise of Japan as a modern military power and the decline of Russian prestige, and contributed to the outbreak of the 1905 Russian Revolution
• First Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906) and Bosnian Crisis (1908-1909) heightened tensions between European powers and demonstrated the fragility of the international order
• Balkan Wars (1912-1913) redrew the map of southeastern Europe and set the stage for World War I by intensifying nationalist rivalries and destabilizing the Ottoman Empire
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914) triggered the outbreak of World War I, which would devastate Europe and mark the end of the long 19th century

Legacy and Impact

• Legacy of the Second Industrial Revolution continued to shape economic, social, and political developments throughout the 20th century, from mass production to the rise of the consumer society
• Nationalism and imperialism, which reached their apex in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, would contribute to the outbreak of two world wars and the collapse of European empires
• Women's suffrage and the women's rights movement laid the foundation for further advances in gender equality, including increased access to education and employment opportunities
• Social reforms and the rise of the welfare state in the early 20th century would set the stage for the expansion of government programs and services in areas such as health care, education, and social security
• Cultural movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, from Impressionism to Modernism, would have a lasting impact on the development of art, literature, and music throughout the 20th century and beyond
• Rapid urbanization and the growth of cities in the late 19th century created new challenges and opportunities for urban planning, infrastructure development, and social organization that continue to shape our world today
• Scientific and technological advances of the period, from the discovery of X-rays to the development of the automobile, laid the groundwork for further innovations and breakthroughs in fields such as medicine, transportation, and communication