American Literature – 1860 to Present

2.1 Mark Twain

Citation:

Mark Twain, born Samuel Clemens, revolutionized American literature in the late 19th century. His experiences along the Mississippi River and travels across America provided rich material for his works, which introduced new styles and perspectives that continue to influence modern writing.

Twain's major works, including "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" and "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer," captured the essence of American life and introduced innovative narrative techniques. His use of vernacular language, social criticism, and realism helped establish a distinctly American voice in literature.

Biography of Mark Twain

Mark Twain, born Samuel Langhorne Clemens, emerged as a pivotal figure in American literature during the late 19th century
His life and works significantly shaped the landscape of American writing, introducing new styles and perspectives that continue to influence modern literature
Twain's experiences along the Mississippi River and his travels across America provided rich material for his literary creations, reflecting the diverse cultural tapestry of post-Civil War America

Early life and education

Born in Florida, Missouri, in 1835, grew up in Hannibal, Missouri, along the Mississippi River
Limited formal education, left school at age 12 to become a printer's apprentice
Self-educated through extensive reading in public libraries
Worked as a typesetter and contributed articles to his older brother's newspaper

Journalistic career

Began writing for the Keokuk Saturday Post in Iowa
Worked as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River from 1857 to 1861
Moved to Nevada Territory in 1861, wrote for the Territorial Enterprise in Virginia City
Gained recognition for his humorous stories and sketches published in various newspapers

Pen name origin

Adopted "Mark Twain" as his pen name in 1863
Derived from riverboat slang "mark twain" meaning two fathoms deep
Symbolized his connection to the Mississippi River and his steamboat days
Previously used other pseudonyms including "Josh" and "Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass"

Major works

Twain's major works represent a significant contribution to the development of American literature in the post-Civil War era
His novels and short stories captured the essence of American life, particularly along the Mississippi River, and introduced new narrative techniques
These works continue to be widely read and studied, forming an essential part of the American literary canon

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

Published in 1884, considered Twain's masterpiece and a landmark of American literature
Narrated by Huck Finn, a young boy who flees his abusive father with Jim, a runaway slave
Explores themes of racism, morality, and the conflict between societal expectations and individual conscience
Utilizes vernacular language and dialects to authentically represent characters and settings
Controversial for its depiction of racial issues and use of racial slurs

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

Published in 1876, precursor to Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Depicts the childhood adventures of Tom Sawyer in a fictional Missouri town based on Hannibal
Combines elements of humor, social satire, and coming-of-age narrative
Introduces iconic scenes like whitewashing the fence and exploring caves
Reflects Twain's own childhood experiences along the Mississippi River

A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court

Published in 1889, blends historical fiction with science fiction and social satire
Tells the story of a 19th-century American transported back to medieval England
Critiques monarchy, organized religion, and social inequality
Explores themes of technological progress and its impact on society
Demonstrates Twain's ability to use humor to address serious social and political issues

Literary style and themes

Twain's literary style and themes revolutionized American literature, introducing new approaches to storytelling and social commentary
His work bridged the gap between romanticism and realism, paving the way for the modernist movement in American letters
Twain's unique voice and perspective continue to influence contemporary writers and shape literary discourse

Use of vernacular

Pioneered the use of regional dialects and colloquial speech in American literature
Captured the authentic voices of characters from various social and economic backgrounds
Employed different dialects to distinguish characters and enhance realism
Challenged literary conventions by elevating everyday language to the realm of serious literature
Influenced subsequent writers to explore linguistic diversity in their works

Used humor and irony to critique societal norms, institutions, and political systems
Addressed issues such as racism, imperialism, and corruption in American society
Employed satire to expose hypocrisy and challenge readers' assumptions
Balanced humor with serious social commentary to engage readers on multiple levels
Developed characters that embodied societal flaws and contradictions

Realism and regionalism

Depicted realistic portrayals of American life, particularly in the Mississippi River region
Focused on accurate representations of settings, dialects, and social customs
Explored the complexities of human nature and moral dilemmas
Contributed to the development of regional literature in American writing
Blended realism with elements of romanticism and folklore

Influence on American literature

Twain's influence on American literature extends far beyond his own time, shaping the development of various literary movements and styles
His work helped establish a distinctly American voice in literature, separate from European traditions
Twain's legacy continues to inspire writers, humorists, and social critics in the modern era

Contributions to realism

Helped establish realism as a dominant literary movement in American literature
Depicted authentic American experiences and characters with flaws and complexities
Challenged romanticized notions of the American frontier and Southern life
Influenced writers like William Dean Howells and Henry James in their pursuit of realism
Paved the way for naturalism in American literature through his unflinching portrayals of society

Impact on vernacular writing

Legitimized the use of regional dialects and colloquial language in literature
Inspired subsequent writers to explore diverse linguistic expressions in their work
Influenced the development of modernist literature through his experimentation with language
Contributed to the preservation of regional American dialects and expressions
Encouraged writers to capture the authentic voices of their characters and settings

Legacy in humor and satire

Established a tradition of American humor writing that continues to influence modern comedians and authors
Developed techniques for using humor to address serious social and political issues
Influenced satirical writers such as Kurt Vonnegut and Joseph Heller
Contributed to the development of American wit and irony in literature
Demonstrated the power of humor as a tool for social criticism and cultural commentary

Controversies and criticisms

Twain's works have been subject to ongoing debates and controversies, reflecting changing social attitudes and literary interpretations
These controversies highlight the complex relationship between literature, history, and social progress
Discussions surrounding Twain's works continue to shape conversations about race, censorship, and the role of literature in society

Racial depictions in works

Criticized for the use of racial slurs and stereotypical portrayals of Black characters
Debates over whether Twain's work reinforces or challenges racist attitudes of his time
Arguments that Twain's depiction of Jim in Huckleberry Finn is humanizing and anti-racist
Discussions about the historical context of Twain's racial representations
Ongoing scholarly debate about the interpretation of race in Twain's works

Censorship and banning

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn frequently challenged and banned in schools and libraries
Concerns over the book's use of racial slurs and potential to offend or traumatize students
Debates about the educational value of teaching Twain's works in modern classrooms
Arguments for and against editing or sanitizing Twain's language for contemporary readers
Discussions about the broader implications of censoring classic literature

Modern interpretations

Reevaluation of Twain's works through contemporary critical lenses (postcolonial, feminist)
Debates about the relevance and appropriateness of Twain's humor in the 21st century
Exploration of Twain's evolving views on race and imperialism throughout his career
Discussions about the role of historical context in interpreting and teaching Twain's works
Ongoing scholarly research into previously unpublished or overlooked aspects of Twain's writing

Mark Twain's America

Twain's works provide a vivid portrayal of American society during a period of rapid change and expansion
His writings capture the complexities and contradictions of post-Civil War America, offering insights into the nation's cultural and social development
Twain's America serves as a backdrop for exploring themes that continue to resonate in contemporary American society

Mississippi River culture

Depicted life along the Mississippi River as a microcosm of American society
Explored the diverse communities and social structures that developed along the river
Captured the importance of the river as a commercial and cultural artery
Described the unique customs, dialects, and folklore of river communities
Portrayed the Mississippi as a symbol of freedom and adventure in American literature

Gilded Age critique

Coined the term "Gilded Age" to describe the era of rapid economic growth and social problems
Criticized the excesses and corruption of the newly wealthy industrial class
Exposed the stark contrasts between the rich and poor in American society
Satirized political corruption and the influence of money in government
Challenged the notion of the American Dream in the face of growing inequality

Imperialism and politics

Critiqued American imperialism and expansionist policies (Spanish-American War)
Opposed American intervention in the Philippines through essays and speeches
Satirized the concept of "civilizing" other cultures in works like "To the Person Sitting in Darkness"
Commented on domestic politics and the shortcomings of American democracy
Explored themes of power, corruption, and national identity in his later works

Later life and career

Twain's later years were marked by personal tragedies, financial difficulties, and a shift towards darker, more pessimistic writing
His experiences during this period influenced his later works and public persona
Twain's later life and career provide insight into the evolution of his literary style and philosophical outlook

Financial troubles

Lost a significant portion of his wealth through failed investments (Paige typesetter)
Declared bankruptcy in 1894 due to the failure of his publishing company
Embarked on a worldwide lecture tour to pay off his debts
Received financial support from industrialist Henry Huttleston Rogers
Regained financial stability through successful speaking engagements and writing

International travels

Spent several years living abroad in Europe to reduce living expenses
Traveled extensively, visiting countries in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia
Wrote travelogues based on his experiences (The Innocents Abroad, Following the Equator)
Developed a more global perspective that influenced his later social and political views
Gained international fame and recognition as an American literary figure

Personal tragedies

Lost his daughter Susy to meningitis in 1896 while abroad
Wife Olivia died in 1904 after a long illness
Daughter Jean died on Christmas Eve 1909
These losses contributed to Twain's increasingly pessimistic worldview
Reflected on mortality and human nature in his later works

Posthumous publications

Twain left behind a significant body of unpublished work, which has been released in the years following his death
These posthumous publications offer new insights into Twain's thoughts, writing process, and personal life
The release of these works has contributed to ongoing scholarly interest in Twain and his legacy

Autobiography of Mark Twain

Dictated by Twain over several years, with instructions not to publish for 100 years after his death
First volume published in 2010, followed by two additional volumes
Provides candid reflections on Twain's life, career, and contemporaries
Offers insights into Twain's writing process and personal philosophy
Includes previously unpublished anecdotes and opinions on various subjects

Letters from the Earth

Collection of essays and short stories published in 1962
Satirizes Christianity and human nature through the perspective of Satan
Explores themes of religious hypocrisy and human folly
Demonstrates Twain's more cynical and critical views in his later years
Initially considered too controversial for publication during Twain's lifetime

No. 44, The Mysterious Stranger

Unfinished work published posthumously in various versions
Explores themes of morality, free will, and the nature of evil
Features a supernatural character who interacts with humans in medieval Austria
Reflects Twain's pessimistic views on human nature and society
Demonstrates Twain's experimentation with narrative structure and philosophical themes

Cultural impact

Twain's influence extends far beyond literature, permeating various aspects of American and global culture
His works continue to be adapted, referenced, and celebrated in diverse media and contexts
Twain's legacy as a cultural icon has contributed to ongoing efforts to preserve and study his life and works

Adaptations of works

Numerous film and television adaptations of Twain's novels and short stories
Stage productions based on Twain's works, including musicals and plays
Graphic novel adaptations introducing Twain's stories to new generations
Audio book recordings featuring prominent actors and voice artists
Digital and interactive adaptations for educational and entertainment purposes

Mark Twain in popular culture

Frequently quoted and referenced in films, television shows, and literature
Iconic image (white suit, mustache, cigar) widely recognized and imitated
Namesake for various awards, institutions, and landmarks
Subject of documentaries, biopics, and fictionalized portrayals
Inspiration for themed attractions and tourism (Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum)

Preservation of legacy

Establishment of the Mark Twain Papers & Project at the University of California, Berkeley
Preservation of Twain's homes and artifacts in museums across the United States
Academic conferences and societies dedicated to Twain scholarship
Ongoing publication of Twain's previously unreleased writings and correspondence
Digital archives and online resources making Twain's works accessible to a global audience

Key Terms to Review (17)

Dialect: Dialect refers to a particular form of a language that is specific to a region or social group, featuring distinct vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. It serves as a crucial tool for expressing cultural identity and regional characteristics, reflecting the unique history and experiences of the speakers. Dialects can reveal not only where a person is from but also their social status and community affiliations.

Use of vernacular speech: The use of vernacular speech refers to the incorporation of everyday language and regional dialects in literature, reflecting the natural speech patterns and cultural nuances of ordinary people. This approach not only enhances authenticity but also allows writers to convey complex social realities and emotions in a relatable manner.

The development of the american novel: The development of the American novel refers to the evolution of narrative fiction in the United States from its early beginnings in the 18th century to its maturation in the 19th and 20th centuries. This evolution is marked by various movements and styles, reflecting the changing social, political, and cultural landscapes of America. Notably, the rise of authors like Mark Twain introduced unique themes and characterizations that shaped the American identity and literary tradition.

New Historicism: New Historicism is a literary theory that emerged in the late 20th century, focusing on the historical context of a text to understand its meaning. This approach emphasizes the interplay between literature and history, suggesting that literary works cannot be fully understood without considering the cultural, social, and political conditions of their time. It often seeks to reveal how power structures and historical events shape narratives, offering a richer interpretation of texts by situating them within their contemporary circumstances.

Jim: Jim is a central character in Mark Twain's novel 'The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,' representing the complex themes of race, freedom, and morality in pre-Civil War America. As an escaped slave, Jim's journey alongside Huck serves as a critique of societal norms regarding race and slavery, highlighting the humanity and dignity of enslaved individuals.

Postcolonial readings: Postcolonial readings refer to the critical analysis of literature and cultural texts that emerged in the wake of colonialism, focusing on the power dynamics, cultural exchanges, and identity issues that arise from colonial histories. This approach emphasizes the perspectives of colonized people, exploring themes of displacement, hybridity, and resistance against colonial narratives.

Tom Sawyer: Tom Sawyer is a fictional character created by Mark Twain, who serves as the protagonist in the novel 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.' Tom embodies the spirit of childhood adventure, mischief, and the struggle for identity in a society laden with rules and expectations. Through his escapades in the fictional town of St. Petersburg, Missouri, Twain explores themes of friendship, freedom, and moral growth.

Huck Finn: Huck Finn is the central character in Mark Twain's novel 'The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,' which explores themes of race, identity, and morality in antebellum America. Huck, a young boy who runs away from home, embarks on a journey down the Mississippi River with an escaped slave named Jim, leading to a series of adventures that challenge societal norms and highlight the contradictions of American society during that time.

Mississippi River Culture: Mississippi River Culture refers to the rich and diverse traditions, lifestyles, and artistic expressions of the communities living along the Mississippi River, significantly influencing American literature, music, and social practices. This culture reflects a mix of Native American, African American, and European influences, showcasing the river as a central element in shaping identity and experience for those who inhabit its banks.

American Civil War: The American Civil War was a conflict fought from 1861 to 1865 between the Northern states (Union) and the Southern states (Confederacy) that seceded from the Union. This war primarily stemmed from issues like slavery, states' rights, and economic disagreements, significantly shaping the nation's history and literature.

Satire: Satire is a literary technique that uses humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to criticize or mock individuals, institutions, or societal norms. It often aims to expose flaws and provoke thought or change by highlighting the absurdities of its subjects. This form of expression can be both entertaining and enlightening, encouraging audiences to reflect on serious issues in a more approachable way.

Morality and ethics: Morality refers to the principles and values that govern an individual's sense of right and wrong, while ethics is the systematic study of those moral principles and how they apply to various situations. These concepts are intertwined, influencing human behavior, societal norms, and the decisions made in complex scenarios. In literature, particularly in works that question societal values, morality and ethics serve as critical lenses through which characters' actions and motivations can be analyzed.

Race and identity: Race and identity refers to the complex interplay between a person's racial background and how that shapes their sense of self and belonging in society. This concept explores how societal perceptions of race can influence individual experiences, interactions, and self-perception, often intersecting with other factors such as culture, class, and gender.

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a novel by Mark Twain published in 1876, telling the story of a young boy growing up along the Mississippi River. The book explores themes of childhood, freedom, and morality through the adventures and mischief of Tom Sawyer and his friends. This work captures the essence of American life during the mid-19th century, showcasing Twain's sharp social commentary and humor.

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel by Mark Twain, published in 1884, that tells the story of a young boy named Huck Finn who escapes from his abusive father and travels down the Mississippi River on a raft with an escaped slave named Jim. This novel is celebrated for its rich themes of race, identity, and morality, offering a critique of the society of Twain's time.

Realism: Realism is a literary movement that emerged in the mid-19th century, focusing on representing everyday life and ordinary people with an emphasis on accuracy and detail. This movement sought to depict life as it truly is, often highlighting social issues and the complexities of human behavior.

Regionalism: Regionalism is a literary movement that emphasizes the specific characteristics, culture, and social life of particular geographical areas. It often aims to represent the unique aspects of a region's identity, including its language, traditions, and landscapes, in a way that reflects the local experience and provides insight into broader societal issues. Regionalism is closely tied to realism, as both movements focus on depicting life authentically and truthfully.

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🏜️american literature – 1860 to present review