Glossary

Langston Hughes, a key figure in American literature since 1860, bridged the and . His work reflected cultural shifts and social issues, shaping in the 20th century.

Hughes' unique voice emerged from his Midwestern upbringing and experiences with racial discrimination. His involvement in the Harlem Renaissance and diverse body of work, spanning poetry, novels, and essays, significantly impacted American literature's evolution.

Early life and influences

  • Langston Hughes emerged as a pivotal figure in American Literature Since 1860, bridging the gap between the Harlem Renaissance and the Civil Rights Movement
  • His early experiences shaped his unique voice and perspective, contributing to the evolving landscape of African American literature in the 20th century
  • Hughes' work reflects the cultural and social shifts occurring in America during this period, making him a key figure in understanding the progression of American literature

Childhood in the Midwest

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  • Born in Joplin, Missouri in 1902, Hughes spent much of his youth in Lawrence, Kansas
  • Raised primarily by his maternal grandmother, Mary Langston, who instilled in him a strong sense of racial pride and heritage
  • Experienced frequent moves and family instability, which later influenced his writing themes of and search for identity
  • Developed an early love for literature and began writing poetry in elementary school
  • Elected class poet in grammar school, despite being the only African American student in his class

Impact of racial discrimination

  • Encountered racial prejudice and segregation in his predominantly white Midwestern communities
  • Witnessed the stark contrast between his grandmother's stories of racial pride and the reality of discrimination in his daily life
  • Experienced the pain of separation from his father, who had moved to Mexico to escape racism in the United States
  • These early encounters with racial injustice fueled his later activism and shaped his literary focus on African American experiences
  • Developed a keen awareness of social inequalities, which became a recurring theme in his writing

Educational background

  • Attended Central High School in Cleveland, Ohio, where he began writing for the school newspaper and literary magazine
  • Spent a year in Mexico with his father after high school, during which he continued to write and develop his literary voice
  • Enrolled at Columbia University in New York City in 1921, but left after one year due to racial prejudice and financial difficulties
  • Worked various jobs, including as a crewman on a ship traveling to West Africa and Europe, broadening his global perspective
  • Later attended Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, graduating in 1929 with a Bachelor of Arts degree
  • During his time at Lincoln, Hughes published his first book of poetry, "" (1926)

Harlem Renaissance involvement

  • Hughes played a central role in the Harlem Renaissance, a cultural movement that significantly impacted American Literature Since 1860
  • His participation in this artistic explosion helped redefine African American literature and its place within the broader American literary canon
  • The Harlem Renaissance's influence on Hughes' work exemplifies the interconnectedness of art, culture, and social change in American literature of this period

Key figures and connections

  • Formed close relationships with other prominent Harlem Renaissance figures (, Countee Cullen, )
  • Mentored by older writers and intellectuals (Alain Locke, W.E.B. Du Bois, James Weldon Johnson)
  • Collaborated with visual artists (Aaron Douglas, Miguel Covarrubias) on various projects, blending literature with other art forms
  • Engaged in literary debates and discussions with contemporaries, shaping the direction of African American literature
  • Supported and promoted younger writers, helping to sustain the momentum of the Harlem Renaissance beyond its peak years

Artistic atmosphere of 1920s Harlem

  • Immersed himself in the vibrant cultural scene of Harlem, drawing inspiration from jazz clubs, street life, and community gatherings
  • Participated in literary salons and social events that brought together artists, writers, and intellectuals
  • Witnessed the explosion of African American art, music, and literature that characterized the Harlem Renaissance
  • Experienced the sense of racial pride and cultural affirmation that permeated the Harlem community during this period
  • Absorbed the political and social discussions that were integral to the Harlem Renaissance, informing his own artistic vision

Major literary works

  • Hughes' diverse body of work significantly contributed to the evolution of American Literature Since 1860
  • His writings span multiple genres, showcasing the versatility and depth of African American literary expression
  • The themes and styles present in Hughes' major works reflect broader trends and shifts in American literature during this period

Poetry collections

  • "The Weary Blues" (1926) marked Hughes' debut as a published poet and introduced his distinctive voice
  • "" (1927) further explored themes of and working-class life
  • "" (1951) employed innovative jazz-influenced techniques to depict Harlem life
  • "" (1961) represented Hughes' most experimental work, blending poetry with musical notation
  • Other notable collections include "Shakespeare in Harlem" (1942) and "One-Way Ticket" (1949)

Novels and short stories

  • "Not Without Laughter" (1930) Hughes' first novel, drew on his childhood experiences in the Midwest
  • "The Ways of White Folks" (1934) short story collection explored racial tensions and interactions
  • "Simple Speaks His Mind" (1950) introduced the popular character Jesse B. Semple, or "Simple"
  • Continued the Simple series with "Simple Takes a Wife" (1953) and "Simple's Uncle Sam" (1965)
  • "Tambourines to Glory" (1958) novel blended humor and social commentary in a Harlem setting

Essays and non-fiction

  • "The Big Sea" (1940) autobiographical work covering Hughes' early life and travels
  • "I Wonder as I Wander" (1956) second volume of autobiography focusing on his international experiences
  • "Fight for Freedom: The Story of the NAACP" (1962) chronicled the history of the civil rights organization
  • Contributed numerous essays to magazines and newspapers, addressing social and political issues
  • Wrote several children's books, including "The First Book of Negroes" (1952) and "The First Book of Jazz" (1955)

Themes in Hughes' writing

  • Hughes' exploration of various themes in his work reflects the evolving concerns and perspectives in American Literature Since 1860
  • His writing captures the complexities of the during a period of significant social and cultural change
  • The themes present in Hughes' work continue to resonate in contemporary American literature, demonstrating their enduring relevance

African American experience

  • Depicted the everyday lives, struggles, and joys of African Americans in urban and rural settings
  • Explored the concept of racial identity and pride, challenging stereotypes and promoting self-affirmation
  • Addressed the psychological impact of racism and discrimination on individuals and communities
  • Celebrated African American culture, traditions, and folklore, preserving and elevating these elements in literature
  • Examined the complexities of intra-racial relationships and colorism within the African American community

Jazz and blues influences

  • Incorporated rhythms and structures of jazz and blues music into his poetry, creating a unique literary style
  • Used musical references and to evoke the atmosphere of Harlem and other African American communities
  • Explored themes common in blues lyrics, such as love, loss, and perseverance in the face of hardship
  • Employed call-and-response patterns and repetition, mirroring techniques found in jazz and blues performances
  • Celebrated jazz and blues musicians as cultural icons and symbols of African American resilience and creativity

Social justice and equality

  • Advocated for civil rights and racial equality through his writing, often addressing these issues directly
  • Critiqued economic inequality and its impact on African American communities
  • Explored the intersection of race and class, highlighting the struggles of working-class African Americans
  • Addressed international issues, connecting the African American experience to global struggles for freedom
  • Promoted unity and solidarity among oppressed peoples, both within the United States and around the world

Literary style and techniques

  • Hughes' innovative literary style and techniques contributed to the diversification of American Literature Since 1860
  • His approach to language and form challenged traditional literary conventions and expanded the possibilities for African American expression
  • The techniques employed by Hughes influenced subsequent generations of writers, shaping the trajectory of American literature

Use of vernacular language

  • Incorporated African American Vernacular English (AAVE) into his poetry and prose, legitimizing it as a literary language
  • Captured the rhythms and cadences of everyday speech in his dialogue and narration
  • Used colloquialisms and slang to create authentic representations of African American characters and communities
  • Employed dialect strategically to convey cultural identity and challenge linguistic hierarchies
  • Balanced vernacular with standard English, demonstrating the coexistence of multiple linguistic registers

Rhythmic and musical elements

  • Utilized jazz and blues rhythms in his poetry, creating a syncopated and improvisational feel
  • Employed repetition and refrain techniques inspired by musical structures (call-and-response, chorus)
  • Experimented with line breaks and spacing to create visual representations of rhythm on the page
  • Incorporated onomatopoeia and sound devices to evoke musical qualities in his writing
  • Collaborated with musicians to create performance pieces that blended poetry and music

Symbolism and imagery

  • Used powerful and evocative imagery to convey complex emotions and experiences
  • Employed natural symbols (rivers, mountains, stars) to represent broader themes of freedom and aspiration
  • Utilized urban imagery to depict the realities of African American life in cities like Harlem
  • Incorporated African and African American cultural symbols to connect with heritage and identity
  • Developed recurring symbols and motifs throughout his work to create a cohesive artistic vision

Cultural and political impact

  • Hughes' work significantly influenced the cultural and political landscape of American Literature Since 1860
  • His engagement with social and political issues through literature set a precedent for future generations of writers
  • The impact of Hughes' writing extended beyond literature, contributing to broader social and cultural movements

Civil rights movement contributions

  • Wrote poems and essays that directly addressed racial injustice and called for equality
  • Participated in civil rights events and demonstrations, using his platform as a writer to support the movement
  • Influenced younger activists and writers through his commitment to
  • Collaborated with civil rights organizations (NAACP) to promote their causes through literature
  • His work "Montage of a Dream Deferred" (1951) became an anthem for the civil rights movement

Influence on African American literature

  • Paved the way for future generations of African American writers by expanding the possibilities of literary expression
  • Inspired writers to embrace their cultural heritage and experiences as valid subjects for literature
  • Demonstrated the power of literature as a tool for social commentary and change
  • Helped establish African American literature as a significant and respected part of the American literary canon
  • Influenced the development of the Black Arts Movement in the 1960s and 1970s

International recognition

  • Gained recognition as a cultural ambassador, traveling and lecturing in various countries
  • Translated into multiple languages, broadening the global reach of African American literature
  • Influenced international writers and artists, particularly in Africa and the Caribbean
  • Participated in international writers' conferences, fostering cross-cultural literary exchanges
  • Received numerous awards and honors from international organizations, solidifying his global reputation

Legacy and critical reception

  • Hughes' legacy continues to shape American Literature Since 1860, influencing contemporary writers and scholars
  • The critical reception of his work has evolved over time, reflecting changing perspectives on race, literature, and social issues
  • His enduring popularity and scholarly interest demonstrate the lasting impact of his contributions to American literature

Posthumous publications

  • "The Panther and the Lash" (1967) poetry collection published shortly after Hughes' death
  • "Good Morning Revolution: Uncollected Social Protest Writings" (1973) compilation of previously unpublished works
  • "The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes" (1994) comprehensive anthology of his poetry
  • "Remember Me to Harlem: The Letters of Langston Hughes and Carl Van Vechten" (2001) insight into Hughes' personal correspondence
  • Continued publication of new editions and compilations of Hughes' work, ensuring its accessibility to new generations

Scholarly analysis and interpretations

  • Extensive academic research on Hughes' life and work, including biographies and critical studies
  • Analysis of Hughes' use of and its impact on African American literature
  • Examination of Hughes' political views and their influence on his writing
  • Exploration of Hughes' treatment of gender and sexuality in his work
  • Interdisciplinary studies connecting Hughes' writing to music, visual art, and performance

Influence on contemporary writers

  • Inspired poets to experiment with form and language, blending vernacular and standard English
  • Encouraged writers to address social and political issues directly in their work
  • Influenced the development of spoken word and performance poetry
  • Served as a model for writers seeking to balance artistic expression with social responsibility
  • Continues to be taught in schools and universities, shaping new generations of writers and readers

Hughes vs other Harlem Renaissance writers

  • Comparing Hughes to his contemporaries provides insight into the diversity of voices within American Literature Since 1860
  • The distinctions between Hughes and other Harlem Renaissance writers highlight the various approaches to African American literary expression
  • Understanding these differences enhances our appreciation of the complexity and richness of the Harlem Renaissance as a literary movement

Stylistic differences

  • Hughes favored a more accessible, vernacular style compared to the formal approach of writers like Countee Cullen
  • Employed free verse and jazz-inspired rhythms, contrasting with the traditional forms used by many of his contemporaries
  • Focused on everyday experiences and working-class characters, while some writers (Nella Larsen) explored middle-class life
  • Incorporated oral traditions and folklore more extensively than some of his peers
  • Experimented with blending genres and forms, pushing the boundaries of conventional literary categories

Thematic approaches

  • Emphasized racial pride and affirmation more consistently than some writers who explored racial ambiguity
  • Addressed political and social issues more directly than writers who focused primarily on artistic expression
  • Explored international themes and connections, while some writers concentrated solely on the American experience
  • Celebrated African American culture and heritage, contrasting with writers who sought to downplay racial differences
  • Focused on collective experiences, while writers like Zora Neale Hurston emphasized individual stories and folklore

Cultural significance

  • Achieved broader popular appeal and recognition compared to some of his more academically-oriented peers
  • Served as a bridge between the Harlem Renaissance and subsequent literary movements (Black Arts Movement)
  • Influenced a wider range of artistic forms, including music and theater, than many of his contemporaries
  • Maintained a longer and more prolific career, spanning multiple decades and literary periods
  • Became an international cultural ambassador, extending the influence of the Harlem Renaissance beyond U.S. borders

Controversies and criticisms

  • The controversies surrounding Hughes' work reflect broader debates within American Literature Since 1860
  • Criticisms of Hughes highlight the complex relationship between literature, politics, and social issues during this period
  • Understanding these controversies provides context for the challenges faced by African American writers in the 20th century

Political affiliations

  • Faced scrutiny for his left-leaning political views and associations with socialist and communist groups
  • Testified before the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations led by Joseph McCarthy in 1953
  • Criticized by some for his initial support of the Soviet Union, which he later tempered
  • Defended his right to express political views through his art, despite pressure to conform to mainstream ideologies
  • Experienced censorship and blacklisting during the Red Scare, impacting his career and public reception

Representation of race issues

  • Criticized by some African American intellectuals for his portrayal of working-class black life and use of vernacular language
  • Accused of perpetuating stereotypes by some critics, while others praised his authentic representation of African American experiences
  • Debated the effectiveness of his approach to addressing racial issues, with some arguing for more militant stances
  • Faced criticism for his nuanced treatment of interracial relationships and colorism within the African American community
  • Challenged by younger, more radical writers in the 1960s for his perceived moderation on racial issues

Literary establishment reactions

  • Initially overlooked or dismissed by some white critics and academics, who failed to recognize the value of his work
  • Faced resistance from conservative literary circles due to his unconventional style and subject matter
  • Criticized by some for prioritizing social message over artistic refinement
  • Experienced shifting critical reception over time, with later recognition of his literary innovations and cultural importance
  • Debated within academic circles regarding his place in the canon of American literature

Adaptations and tributes

  • The various adaptations of Hughes' work demonstrate its enduring relevance in American Literature Since 1860
  • Tributes to Hughes reflect his lasting influence on literature, music, and popular culture
  • The continued reinterpretation of Hughes' work in different media showcases its versatility and universal themes

Musical settings of poems

  • "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" adapted into a choral work by Margaret Bonds in 1941
  • Jazz musicians (Charles Mingus, Nina Simone) incorporated Hughes' poetry into their compositions
  • Contemporary classical composers (Ricky Ian Gordon, John Musto) created song cycles based on Hughes' poems
  • Hip-hop artists sampled and referenced Hughes' work, connecting his legacy to modern musical forms
  • Gospel and spiritual arrangements of Hughes' religious-themed poems performed by choirs and soloists

Theatrical productions

  • "Mulatto" (1935) Hughes' first full-length play, produced on Broadway
  • "Black Nativity" (1961) gospel song-play, regularly performed during holiday seasons
  • "Simply Heavenly" (1957) musical based on Hughes' Simple stories, adapted for both stage and screen
  • One-person shows and dramatic readings of Hughes' poetry performed in theaters worldwide
  • Incorporation of Hughes' work into larger theatrical productions exploring African American history and culture

Commemorative works and events

  • Langston Hughes House in Harlem designated a New York City Landmark in 1981
  • Annual Langston Hughes Festival at City College of New York celebrates his legacy
  • U.S. Postal Service issued a Langston Hughes commemorative stamp in 2002
  • Langston Hughes Library and Cultural Center in Queens, New York, named in his honor
  • Academic conferences and symposia regularly held to discuss Hughes' life, work, and ongoing influence

Key Terms to Review (24)

African American experience: The African American experience encompasses the unique historical, cultural, and social journey of African Americans in the United States, shaped by their ancestry, struggles against slavery, systemic racism, and resilience. This experience is expressed through art, literature, music, and activism, highlighting themes of identity, community, and resistance to oppression.
African American literature: African American literature encompasses the body of written works produced by African Americans, reflecting their experiences, struggles, and cultural heritage. This genre includes poetry, novels, essays, and plays that often explore themes of identity, race, and social justice, drawing from the rich oral traditions and historical narratives of the African American experience.
Ask your mama: 'Ask your mama' is a colloquial phrase that embodies the tradition of oral storytelling and the passing down of wisdom and knowledge through generations. In the context of African American literature, particularly in the works of Langston Hughes, it represents the cultural heritage, familial bonds, and the importance of community in sharing life experiences and truths.
Civil rights movement: The civil rights movement was a pivotal social and political struggle in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s, aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. It sought to secure equal rights under the law and promote social justice, leading to significant changes in legislation and societal attitudes.
Claude McKay: Claude McKay was a prominent Jamaican-American writer and poet, best known for his role in the Harlem Renaissance, where he contributed to the literary and cultural awakening of African Americans during the early 20th century. His works often explored themes of race, identity, and social justice, connecting with the broader movements in American literature and African American expression.
Cultural nationalism: Cultural nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes the importance of a shared culture, language, history, and traditions in defining a nation's identity. It seeks to promote and preserve cultural heritage, often in response to external influences or pressures, and plays a critical role in shaping national identity. This idea often intersects with movements in literature, art, and politics, as seen in the works of various writers and the concept of defining what constitutes an 'American' narrative.
Double Consciousness: Double consciousness is a concept coined by W.E.B. Du Bois that describes the internal conflict experienced by subordinated or colonized groups in an oppressive society. It refers to the struggle of having a dual identity—seeing oneself through one’s own eyes while also viewing oneself through the prejudiced perspective of the dominant culture. This idea resonates deeply within the context of African American experiences and reflects broader themes of identity, social justice, and cultural expression.
Fine clothes to the jew: The phrase 'fine clothes to the jew' refers to a metaphorical expression that highlights the paradox of providing something lavish to someone who may not have a true appreciation for its value. It connects to themes of cultural identity, racial dynamics, and socioeconomic status, particularly within the context of African American literature, where it often symbolizes the quest for dignity and respect in a society that devalues marginalized communities.
Great Migration: The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West between the 1910s and 1970s. This movement significantly impacted the cultural landscape of America, influencing various artistic movements, the civil rights movement, and literature by giving voice to the experiences of those who sought better opportunities and escape from systemic racism.
Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic movement that emerged in the early 20th century, centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, celebrating African American culture and identity. This movement marked a pivotal time for African American artists, writers, and musicians to express their experiences, challenges, and hopes through their work. The Harlem Renaissance is deeply connected to the evolution of African American literature, urban narratives, and civil rights discourse, leaving a lasting impact on American culture and society.
Imagery: Imagery refers to the use of descriptive language that creates vivid mental pictures, appealing to the senses of sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell. This technique enhances the emotional impact of a piece of writing, allowing readers to experience the text more fully and connect with the underlying themes.
Jazz poetry: Jazz poetry is a form of literature that combines the rhythms, improvisation, and styles of jazz music with spoken or written word. This artistic movement emerged prominently during the Harlem Renaissance, reflecting the cultural vitality and creativity of African American artists, and often expressed themes of identity, social justice, and the African American experience. By intertwining the musicality of jazz with poetic forms, this genre creates a dynamic and emotive expression that resonates with the spontaneity found in jazz performances.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. These laws institutionalized a range of discriminatory practices, including segregated schools, public facilities, and transportation, creating a society where African Americans were systematically marginalized. The impact of Jim Crow laws can be seen across various cultural movements and literary expressions, highlighting the struggle for equality and justice.
Montage of a dream deferred: The 'montage of a dream deferred' refers to a poetic technique used to explore the consequences of unfulfilled aspirations, particularly in the context of African American experiences. It suggests a collage of fragmented images and emotions, illustrating how delayed dreams can lead to frustration, anger, and despair. This concept is vividly encapsulated in Langston Hughes' poem 'A Dream Deferred,' where he presents various metaphors to convey the impact of postponed dreams on individuals and society.
Musical influences: Musical influences refer to the various styles, genres, and cultural elements that shape an artist's work and creative expression. These influences often draw from diverse musical traditions, historical contexts, and personal experiences, reflecting a rich tapestry of sounds and rhythms that can be integrated into literary art forms, particularly in poetry and storytelling.
NAACP Image Award: The NAACP Image Award is an annual awards ceremony recognizing outstanding achievements in the arts and media, particularly focusing on the contributions of people of color. Established by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1967, the awards aim to promote diversity and positive portrayals of African Americans in entertainment, honoring excellence in film, television, music, and literature.
Racial identity: Racial identity refers to an individual's sense of belonging to a specific racial group, encompassing shared experiences, cultural practices, and historical backgrounds. It shapes how people perceive themselves and how they are perceived by others, often influencing social interactions and personal narratives. Racial identity plays a crucial role in literature, reflecting broader societal themes of race, culture, and the quest for self-definition.
Rhythmic elements: Rhythmic elements refer to the patterns of sounds and silences in poetry and prose that create a sense of movement and musicality. These elements can include meter, line length, repetition, and pauses, all of which contribute to the overall flow and emotional impact of a piece. In literary works, especially those influenced by jazz and blues, rhythmic elements enhance the expressiveness and depth of the text.
Rootlessness: Rootlessness refers to a sense of disconnection or lack of belonging, often experienced by individuals who feel estranged from their cultural, social, or familial ties. This feeling can be deeply tied to themes of identity, displacement, and the search for personal meaning in a complex world. In literature, rootlessness often reflects characters' struggles with their sense of self and place in society, highlighting the emotional and psychological impacts of societal changes and personal upheavals.
Social Justice: Social justice refers to the pursuit of a fair and equitable society in which individuals have equal rights and opportunities, and where systemic inequalities based on race, class, gender, and other identities are actively addressed. It emphasizes the importance of inclusivity, representation, and the redistribution of power and resources to create a more just society. This concept is often explored in various forms of literature, highlighting social issues and advocating for change.
Spingarn Medal: The Spingarn Medal is an annual award established in 1914 by the NAACP to honor outstanding achievements by African Americans in various fields, including literature, science, and public service. This prestigious recognition highlights the contributions and accomplishments of Black individuals, serving as a means to promote excellence and inspire future generations.
The Weary Blues: The Weary Blues is a poem by Langston Hughes, published in 1925, that captures the essence of African American life and culture during the Harlem Renaissance. Through its rhythmic style and vivid imagery, the poem conveys feelings of struggle, sorrow, and hope, reflecting the emotional experience of blues music and its deep connection to the African American identity. It serves as a powerful expression of resilience and creativity in the face of hardship.
Vernacular language: Vernacular language refers to the everyday speech and dialect used by a particular group of people, often contrasting with formal or literary language. It reflects the cultural identity and social dynamics of its speakers, making it a vital tool for expressing local customs, values, and experiences. This type of language captures the unique sounds, expressions, and idioms that characterize a community, allowing writers to convey authenticity and relatability in their works.
Zora Neale Hurston: Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent African American author and anthropologist known for her contributions to literature during the Harlem Renaissance. She is celebrated for her rich storytelling and her deep exploration of African American culture, especially through her vivid depictions of Southern life and folklore. Her work helped shape the narrative of African American literature, particularly in its authentic representation of Black voices and experiences.
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