American Literature – 1860 to Present

2.4 Ernest Hemingway

Citation:

Ernest Hemingway's writing revolutionized American literature in the early 20th century. His minimalist style and exploration of post-World War I disillusionment shaped the modernist movement, influencing generations of writers to come.

Hemingway's life experiences as a journalist, soldier, and expatriate deeply informed his work. His novels and short stories delved into themes of war, love, and loss, reflecting the cultural shifts and existential questioning of his era.

Biography and background

Ernest Hemingway emerged as a pivotal figure in American literature during the early 20th century, shaping the modernist movement
His experiences as a journalist, soldier, and expatriate profoundly influenced his writing style and themes
Hemingway's life and work reflect the cultural and social changes of the post-World War I era in American literature

Early life and influences

Born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, to a middle-class family
Developed a love for outdoor activities and nature from his father, a physician and avid sportsman
Exposed to literature and arts by his mother, a musician and aspiring opera singer
Began writing for his high school newspaper, honing his journalistic skills
Rejected his conservative upbringing, seeking adventure and new experiences

Journalism career

Worked as a reporter for the Kansas City Star after high school, learning concise writing
Adopted the newspaper's style guide, which emphasized short sentences and vigorous English
Covered local crime stories and municipal news, developing an eye for detail
Transitioned to war correspondence during World War I, reporting from the Italian front
Continued freelance journalism throughout his life, including coverage of the Spanish Civil War

Military service

Volunteered as an ambulance driver for the American Red Cross in Italy during World War I
Wounded by mortar fire while delivering supplies to soldiers on the front lines
Experienced the horrors of war firsthand, which became a recurring theme in his writing
Awarded the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery for his service
Suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, influencing his portrayal of war in literature

Expatriate years in Paris

Moved to Paris in 1921 with his first wife, Hadley Richardson
Became part of the "Lost Generation" of American expatriate writers and artists
Interacted with influential figures (Gertrude Stein, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ezra Pound)
Wrote his first novel, "The Sun Also Rises," during this period
Absorbed the modernist literary techniques and avant-garde art movements of 1920s Paris

Major works and themes

Hemingway's novels and short stories revolutionized American literature with their distinct style and themes
His works often explored the psychological impact of war, love, and loss on the human psyche
Hemingway's writing reflected the disillusionment and existential questioning of the post-World War I generation

The Sun Also Rises

Published in 1926, considered Hemingway's breakthrough novel
Depicts the aimless wanderings of the "Lost Generation" in post-World War I Europe
Explores themes of masculinity, impotence, and the search for meaning in a chaotic world
Features the character of Jake Barnes, a war veteran struggling with physical and emotional wounds
Set against the backdrop of bullfighting in Spain, symbolizing the brutality and beauty of life

A Farewell to Arms

Semi-autobiographical novel published in 1929, based on Hemingway's experiences in World War I
Tells the story of an American ambulance driver's romance with an English nurse during the war
Examines the futility of war and the power of love in the face of death and destruction
Showcases Hemingway's understated prose style and use of dialogue to convey emotion
Critiques the glorification of war and patriotism, presenting a more realistic and cynical view

For Whom the Bell Tolls

Published in 1940, set during the Spanish Civil War
Follows Robert Jordan, an American volunteer fighting for the Republican side
Explores themes of duty, sacrifice, and the nature of heroism in wartime
Incorporates Hemingway's experiences as a war correspondent in Spain
Demonstrates the author's evolving political views and commitment to anti-fascism

The Old Man and the Sea

Novella published in 1952, won the Pulitzer Prize and contributed to Hemingway's Nobel Prize
Tells the story of an aging Cuban fisherman's epic struggle with a giant marlin
Symbolizes the human struggle against nature and the inevitability of defeat
Explores themes of perseverance, dignity in the face of adversity, and the cyclical nature of life
Represents a return to simpler storytelling after Hemingway's more complex earlier works

Writing style and technique

Hemingway's distinctive writing style revolutionized American prose in the 20th century
His approach to narrative and dialogue influenced generations of writers across genres
The author's techniques aimed to convey complex emotions and ideas through seemingly simple language

Iceberg theory

Hemingway's principle of omitting significant parts of a story to strengthen the narrative
Based on the idea that the deeper meaning of a story should be implicit rather than explicit
Relies on the reader's ability to infer meaning from what is left unsaid
Creates a sense of depth and complexity beneath the surface of simple prose
Exemplified in short stories (Hills Like White Elephants) where dialogue hints at unspoken tensions

Minimalism and brevity

Characterized by short, declarative sentences and limited use of adjectives
Focused on concrete nouns and action verbs to create vivid imagery
Avoided excessive description, allowing readers to fill in details with their imagination
Influenced by Hemingway's background in journalism and the constraints of telegraphic reporting
Created a sense of immediacy and emotional impact through economical use of language

Dialogue and characterization

Used realistic, often terse dialogue to reveal character and advance the plot
Avoided excessive attribution tags, relying on the distinctiveness of each character's voice
Employed subtext in conversations to convey deeper emotions and conflicts
Created memorable characters through their actions and speech rather than lengthy descriptions
Influenced the development of hard-boiled detective fiction and film noir dialogue

Symbolism and imagery

Incorporated subtle yet powerful symbols to convey themes and emotions
Used natural elements (rain, mountains, rivers) to reflect characters' inner states
Employed recurring motifs (bullfighting, fishing) to explore larger themes of life and death
Created vivid sensory descriptions to immerse readers in the story's setting
Balanced symbolic elements with realistic details to maintain authenticity

Literary influence and legacy

Hemingway's impact on American literature extends far beyond his own works
His innovative style and thematic concerns shaped the direction of 20th-century fiction
The author's influence continues to be felt in contemporary literature and popular culture

Lost Generation writers

Hemingway was a central figure among expatriate American writers in 1920s Paris
Shared themes of disillusionment and alienation with contemporaries (F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos)
Explored the psychological impact of World War I on their generation
Challenged traditional literary forms and conventions, embracing modernist techniques
Influenced by and influencing European writers and artists of the period

Impact on modern literature

Revolutionized prose style with his minimalist approach and "iceberg theory"
Inspired generations of writers to adopt more direct, unadorned narrative techniques
Influenced the development of literary journalism and New Journalism (Tom Wolfe, Hunter S. Thompson)
Shaped the evolution of the short story form in American literature
Contributed to the rise of realism and naturalism in 20th-century fiction

Hemingway's literary descendants

Directly influenced writers (Raymond Carver, Cormac McCarthy, Joan Didion)
Inspired a school of "Hemingwayesque" writing characterized by spare prose and masculine themes
Impacted genre fiction, particularly hard-boiled detective novels and war literature
Influenced international authors (Gabriel García Márquez, Haruki Murakami)
Continues to inspire contemporary writers exploring themes of masculinity and existentialism

Critical reception over time

Initially praised for his innovative style and unflinching portrayal of post-war disillusionment
Faced criticism in later years for perceived machismo and limited range of subjects
Reevaluated by feminist critics who found complexity in his portrayal of gender roles
Recognized for his contributions to American literature with the Nobel Prize in 1954
Continues to be studied and debated in academic circles, with ongoing reassessment of his work

Hemingway's worldview

Hemingway's personal experiences and observations shaped his distinct perspective on life
His worldview, reflected in his writing, often challenged conventional social norms
The author's philosophy evolved over time, influenced by historical events and personal struggles

Masculinity and gender roles

Explored traditional notions of masculinity through characters facing physical and emotional challenges
Portrayed complex male-female relationships, often marked by power dynamics and miscommunication
Examined the impact of war and violence on male identity and sexuality
Challenged gender stereotypes through unconventional female characters (Lady Brett Ashley)
Reflected changing attitudes towards gender roles in the early to mid-20th century

War and violence

Drew on personal experiences to depict the psychological toll of combat on individuals
Critiqued the glorification of war while acknowledging the allure of danger and heroism
Explored the moral ambiguities of conflict and the blurred lines between right and wrong in wartime
Used bullfighting as a metaphor for the human struggle against death and fate
Examined the long-term effects of violence on society and individual psyche

Nature and the outdoors

Portrayed nature as both a source of renewal and a testing ground for human endurance
Used outdoor settings (African savannas, Michigan woods) to explore themes of isolation and self-discovery
Depicted hunting and fishing as rituals connecting humans to primal instincts and natural cycles
Explored the relationship between man and animal, often blurring the lines between predator and prey
Employed natural imagery to reflect characters' emotional states and internal conflicts

Existentialism and disillusionment

Grappled with questions of meaning and purpose in a world marked by violence and uncertainty
Portrayed characters struggling to find authenticity and value in their lives
Explored themes of alienation and the search for connection in a fragmented society
Reflected the influence of existentialist philosophy on post-World War I literature
Examined the tension between individual freedom and social responsibility

Personal life and controversies

Hemingway's tumultuous personal life often intersected with his literary career
His experiences and struggles influenced the themes and characters in his work
The author's public persona and private battles continue to fascinate readers and scholars

Marriages and relationships

Married four times: Hadley Richardson, Pauline Pfeiffer, Martha Gellhorn, and Mary Welsh
Relationships often marked by infidelity and power struggles, reflected in his fiction
Drew inspiration from his romantic entanglements for characters and plot lines
Maintained friendships and rivalries with other prominent literary figures
Explored complex dynamics between men and women in his writing, influenced by personal experiences

Alcoholism and mental health

Struggled with alcoholism throughout his adult life, impacting his relationships and work
Experienced periods of depression and anxiety, particularly in his later years
Underwent electroconvulsive therapy for depression in the early 1960s
Family history of mental illness and suicide influenced his perspective on life and death
Portrayed characters grappling with addiction and psychological trauma in his works

Political views and activism

Initially sympathetic to leftist causes, supporting the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War
Became disillusioned with communism after World War II, leading to strained relationships with leftist writers
Monitored by the FBI for his political activities and connections to Cuba
Expressed anti-fascist sentiments in his writing and public statements
Engaged in journalistic coverage of political events, blending reportage with literary techniques

Final years and death

Struggled with declining physical and mental health in the late 1950s and early 1960s
Moved to Ketchum, Idaho, seeking peace and isolation from public life
Paranoia and depression worsened, exacerbated by FBI surveillance and medical issues
Died by suicide on July 2, 1961, shocking the literary world and his fans
Posthumous publications and biographies continued to shape his legacy and public image

Hemingway in popular culture

Hemingway's influence extends beyond literature into various aspects of popular culture
His larger-than-life persona and adventurous lifestyle have become part of American mythology
The author's work continues to inspire adaptations and references across different media

Film and television adaptations

Numerous film adaptations of Hemingway's novels and short stories (A Farewell to Arms, The Old Man and the Sea)
Portrayal of Hemingway as a character in films and TV series (Midnight in Paris, Hemingway & Gellhorn)
Influence on cinematic style, particularly in dialogue and visual storytelling
Documentaries exploring Hemingway's life and work (Ken Burns' Hemingway)
Ongoing interest in adapting Hemingway's work for new generations of viewers

Literary tourism

Hemingway's homes and haunts have become popular tourist destinations
Key locations (Key West, Havana, Paris) offer guided tours and museums dedicated to the author
Annual festivals and events celebrate Hemingway's life and work (Running of the Bulls in Pamplona)
Preservation efforts to maintain Hemingway's residences and writing spaces
Impact on local economies and cultural identity of places associated with the author

Hemingway persona in media

Popularization of the "Hemingway myth" emphasizing masculinity, adventure, and hard living
Influence on fashion and lifestyle trends (safari wear, outdoor pursuits)
Hemingway's image used in advertising and branding (Abercrombie & Fitch, Montblanc)
Parodies and homages in popular culture (The Simpsons, Woody Allen films)
Ongoing fascination with Hemingway's personal life in biographies and documentaries

Posthumous publications

Release of unfinished manuscripts and collected letters after Hemingway's death
Publication of A Moveable Feast, Hemingway's memoir of his time in Paris
Controversy surrounding the editing and publication of posthumous works
Discovery and restoration of lost manuscripts (The Garden of Eden)
Continued scholarly interest in Hemingway's unpublished writings and correspondence

Key Terms to Review (23)

Lady Brett Ashley: Lady Brett Ashley is a central character in Ernest Hemingway's novel 'The Sun Also Rises,' representing the post-war disillusionment and the complexities of modern relationships. As a strong, independent woman navigating her sexuality and emotional connections, she embodies the themes of love, loss, and the search for identity in a world marked by chaos and uncertainty. Brett's relationships with male characters highlight the gender dynamics and societal expectations of the 1920s, making her a symbol of the Lost Generation.

For Whom the Bell Tolls: For Whom the Bell Tolls is a novel by Ernest Hemingway, published in 1940, which explores themes of love, war, and death against the backdrop of the Spanish Civil War. The title itself is derived from a line in John Donne's meditation, suggesting that the tolling of a bell signifies the interconnectedness of human experiences, emphasizing that no one is truly isolated from the suffering of others.

Jake Barnes: Jake Barnes is the protagonist of Ernest Hemingway's novel 'The Sun Also Rises.' He is a war veteran who struggles with impotence, which symbolizes the loss of masculinity and vitality experienced by many men after World War I. Through Jake's experiences and relationships, Hemingway explores themes of disillusionment, the search for identity, and the complexities of love in a post-war world.

Representation of masculinity: The representation of masculinity refers to the ways in which male identities, behaviors, and roles are depicted in literature and culture. It encompasses traditional and evolving notions of what it means to be masculine, often highlighting themes of strength, stoicism, and emotional restraint. In the context of various works, particularly those by certain authors, this representation can both reinforce and challenge societal norms surrounding male identity.

The Roaring Twenties: The Roaring Twenties refers to the dynamic and transformative decade of the 1920s in the United States, characterized by economic prosperity, cultural change, and social upheaval. It was a time marked by a shift in societal norms, where traditional values were challenged, leading to advancements in art, literature, and lifestyle. This period laid the groundwork for modern American culture, influencing figures like Ernest Hemingway and shaping the concept of the Great American Novel.

Santiago: Santiago is the protagonist in Ernest Hemingway's novella 'The Old Man and the Sea,' representing the archetype of the enduring human spirit and resilience in the face of struggle. His character embodies themes of personal dignity, the struggle against nature, and the quest for meaning through suffering and perseverance. Santiago's journey mirrors Hemingway's exploration of existential questions about life, success, and failure.

Gender roles in his works: Gender roles in the works of Ernest Hemingway refer to the expectations and behaviors that society associates with masculinity and femininity as depicted in his literature. Hemingway often explores traditional masculine ideals, such as stoicism, courage, and emotional restraint, while simultaneously presenting female characters who challenge or conform to these norms. His narratives frequently highlight the complexities of gender dynamics, showcasing how societal pressures influence both male and female identities.

Frederic Henry: Frederic Henry is the protagonist and narrator of Ernest Hemingway's novel 'A Farewell to Arms.' He is an American ambulance driver in the Italian army during World War I, embodying themes of love, loss, and the futility of war. His character serves as a lens through which Hemingway explores the psychological impact of war and the struggle for meaning in a chaotic world.

Spanish Civil War: The Spanish Civil War was a brutal conflict that took place from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans, who supported a democratic government, and the Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, who sought to establish a fascist regime. This war not only represented a struggle for Spain's political future but also attracted international attention and involvement, making it a precursor to World War II.

Lost Generation: The Lost Generation refers to a group of American writers and artists who came of age during World War I and felt disillusioned by the societal changes and the horrors of war. This term captures their sense of aimlessness and the search for meaning in a post-war world, leading to a distinctive literary movement that questioned traditional values. The members of this generation often depicted themes of disillusionment, fragmentation, and a quest for identity, which significantly influenced modern literature.

World War I Experiences: World War I experiences refer to the profound and often traumatic impacts of the Great War on soldiers, civilians, and nations involved, shaping cultural narratives, attitudes, and literary expressions in the post-war era. The war resulted in widespread destruction, loss of life, and a deep psychological toll, influencing various artistic movements and the way individuals processed grief and disillusionment.

Courage: Courage is the ability to confront fear, pain, or adversity with determination and bravery. It encompasses not just physical bravery but also moral strength, allowing individuals to stand up for their beliefs or make difficult choices despite potential risks. In literature, particularly in the works of authors like Hemingway, courage often highlights the struggles of characters facing existential challenges or war-related traumas.

Loss: Loss refers to the experience of deprivation, whether of life, love, or something cherished, creating a profound emotional impact. It can take various forms, including personal grief from death, the loss of ideals or dreams, and the collective trauma experienced by communities. In literature, it often serves as a central theme that drives characters and plots, revealing deeper truths about human resilience and vulnerability.

Minimalism: Minimalism is a literary style that emphasizes simplicity and clarity, often stripping away excess details to focus on the essence of the narrative. This approach reflects a broader aesthetic in the arts where artists aim to convey more with less, allowing readers to interpret and engage with the text on a deeper level without being overwhelmed by elaborate descriptions or complex plots.

Iceberg Theory: Iceberg Theory, also known as the 'theory of omission,' is a writing style developed by Ernest Hemingway that emphasizes the idea that the deeper meaning of a story should not be evident on the surface, much like an iceberg where only a small part is visible above water. This approach encourages readers to look beneath the surface to uncover underlying themes and emotions that are not explicitly stated. Hemingway believed that by focusing on simple prose and sparse details, the reader would engage more actively with the text, discovering meaning through subtext rather than overt exposition.

The Old Man and the Sea: The Old Man and the Sea is a novella written by Ernest Hemingway that tells the story of Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman who struggles with a giant marlin in the Gulf Stream. This work showcases themes of perseverance, isolation, and the human spirit's struggle against nature, reflecting Hemingway's distinctive style and his exploration of complex human emotions and experiences.

Pulitzer Prize: The Pulitzer Prize is a prestigious award established in 1917 that recognizes excellence in journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It honors works that have made significant contributions to society and culture, often highlighting themes of social justice, human experience, and the complexities of American life.

Nobel Prize in Literature: The Nobel Prize in Literature is an international award given annually to an author, poet, or playwright for their outstanding contributions to literature, often recognized for the depth of human experience portrayed in their works. Established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, it aims to honor those whose writings inspire and provoke thought. The prize has highlighted significant literary voices from various cultures and eras, reflecting a commitment to recognizing the value of diverse narratives.

Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to the late 1930s, marked by unprecedented unemployment, widespread poverty, and a significant decline in industrial production. This period had profound social and cultural impacts, influencing literary movements and themes in various forms of American literature, revealing the struggles of individuals and communities against economic hardship.

A Farewell to Arms: A Farewell to Arms is a novel by Ernest Hemingway that tells the story of an American ambulance driver in the Italian army during World War I and his love affair with a British nurse. The book captures the disillusionment of the post-war generation, reflecting themes of love, loss, and the brutality of war, which are central to modernist literature. It connects deeply with the experiences and sentiments of the Lost Generation, illustrating how the horrors of World War I influenced not only personal relationships but also broader societal views on heroism and purpose.

The Sun Also Rises: The Sun Also Rises is a novel by Ernest Hemingway, published in 1926, which explores the disillusionment and existential angst of a group of expatriates in the post-World War I era. The story captures the themes of modernism and the Lost Generation, depicting the search for meaning in a world that has been deeply affected by the war. Hemingway's unique writing style and portrayal of characters reflect the broader cultural shifts and sentiments of modernist literature during this time.

Existentialism: Existentialism is a philosophical movement that focuses on individual existence, freedom, and choice, emphasizing the inherent meaninglessness of life. It explores the struggle of individuals to find purpose and authenticity in an indifferent or chaotic universe, often confronting themes like anxiety, absurdity, and isolation. This perspective influenced various literary movements and styles, highlighting the complexities of human experience in the modern world.

Modernism: Modernism is a cultural movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a deliberate break from traditional forms and an exploration of new techniques and ideas in art, literature, and philosophy. This movement reflects the complexities of a rapidly changing world, often questioning established norms and conventions, which connects deeply with various literary styles and thematic explorations.

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🏜️american literature – 1860 to present review