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US History – 1945 to Present
Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: Vietnam War: Impact on American Society
7.1 Escalation of U.S. Involvement in Vietnam
7.2 Anti-War Movement and Counterculture
7.3 Tet Offensive and Domestic Political Consequences

The anti-war movement and counterculture of the 1960s rocked American society. From campus teach-ins to massive protests, activists challenged U.S. involvement in Vietnam and traditional social norms.

Key events like the Gulf of Tonkin incident and methods like draft card burnings shaped the movement. The counterculture overlapped with anti-war efforts, using music and art to express youth rebellion against the establishment.

The Anti-War Movement

Key events of anti-war movement

  • Gulf of Tonkin Incident (1964) sparked escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam based on controversial and disputed reports of North Vietnamese attacks on U.S. ships
  • Teach-ins organized by professors and students educated the public about the war, with the first held at the University of Michigan in March 1965
  • Draft protests opposed the selective service system and conscription, with anti-draft groups like The Resistance forming in 1967
  • Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Beyond Vietnam" speech (1967) publicly denounced the war, connecting it to issues of poverty and racism
  • Student organizations like Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) led campus protests and demonstrations against the war

Methods of anti-war activism

  • Protests and marches, including the March on Washington (1965), Pentagon protests (1967), and Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam (1969), drew large crowds and garnered media attention
  • Draft card burnings publicly destroyed draft cards as a symbolic act of resistance to the selective service system
  • Campus demonstrations, such as sit-ins, teach-ins, and rallies, spread anti-war sentiment at universities across the country
    • Kent State shootings (1970) resulted in the deaths of four students and sparked a nationwide student strike
  • Underground press, including alternative media outlets like The Los Angeles Free Press, The Berkeley Barb, and The East Village Other, disseminated anti-war messages and counterculture ideas

The Counterculture

Anti-war movement vs counterculture

  • Shared values and ideals, including rejection of traditional societal norms, emphasis on peace, love, and personal freedom
  • Overlapping participants, with many anti-war activists also being part of the counterculture and hippies participating in anti-war protests
  • Music and art, such as the Woodstock festival (1969), protest songs, and politically charged artwork, served as symbols of the counterculture and anti-war sentiment
  • Generational divide between baby boomers and their parents, with the counterculture and anti-war movement expressing youth rebellion against the establishment

Impact of anti-war protests

  • Shifting public opinion gradually eroded support for the war as the conflict dragged on and media coverage of protests and war atrocities influenced public perception
  • Political consequences included Lyndon B. Johnson's decision not to seek re-election in 1968 and Richard Nixon's "Vietnamization" policy and gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops
  • Paris Peace Accords (1973) formally ended U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, with the anti-war movement pressuring the government to end the conflict
  • Legacy and lessons of the anti-war movement had a lasting impact on American foreign policy, public skepticism of military interventions, and increased public scrutiny of government actions and the role of the media in wartime

Key Terms to Review (24)

Paris Peace Accords: The Paris Peace Accords were a set of agreements signed in 1973 aimed at establishing peace in Vietnam and ending U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. These accords marked a turning point in U.S. foreign policy, as they sought to facilitate the withdrawal of American troops while addressing the political future of Vietnam, which resonated deeply with the growing anti-war movement and the public's disillusionment with the war.
Beyond Vietnam: Beyond Vietnam is a significant speech delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1967, where he articulated his opposition to the Vietnam War and linked it to broader social issues like poverty and racial injustice. This speech marked a turning point in the anti-war movement, as King expanded the discussion from just opposition to the war to include critiques of U.S. militarism and systemic inequalities that affected marginalized communities. King's vision of peace was not limited to international conflicts but connected to domestic struggles for justice and equality.
Draft protests: Draft protests refer to the organized opposition and demonstrations against the military draft, particularly during the Vietnam War era in the United States. These protests were fueled by a variety of factors, including anti-war sentiment, opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam, and concerns about civil rights and social justice. Draft protests became a prominent feature of the broader anti-war movement and counterculture, symbolizing a rejection of government policies and the militarization of American society.
Woodstock Festival: The Woodstock Festival was a pivotal music festival held in August 1969, symbolizing the peak of the counterculture movement and anti-war sentiment in the United States. It gathered over 400,000 attendees for a three-day celebration of peace, love, and music, featuring iconic performances by artists such as Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin. The event became a lasting symbol of the youth rebellion against the Vietnam War and societal norms.
Pentagon Protests: The Pentagon protests were significant anti-war demonstrations that took place in the 1960s, primarily in 1967 and 1968, aimed at opposing U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. These protests symbolized the growing dissent among American citizens, particularly students and activists, against military action and government policies, often characterized by large gatherings and confrontational tactics, including the notable event where protesters attempted to 'levitate' the Pentagon as a form of political statement.
Teach-ins: Teach-ins are informal, educational gatherings that emerged during the Vietnam War era, where participants discussed the implications of U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and other social issues. These events often featured expert speakers, presentations, and discussions aimed at raising awareness and fostering debate about controversial topics, particularly those related to war and peace. Teach-ins played a crucial role in mobilizing opposition to the Vietnam War and became a hallmark of the broader anti-war movement and counterculture of the 1960s.
The East Village Other: The East Village Other was a notable underground newspaper that emerged in New York City during the 1960s, becoming a key voice for the counterculture and anti-war movement. It served as a platform for radical political ideas, artistic expression, and alternative lifestyles, reflecting the spirit of dissent and creativity prevalent in the East Village community. The publication highlighted social issues, challenged mainstream media narratives, and fostered a sense of solidarity among activists, artists, and youth rebelling against the status quo.
Underground press: The underground press refers to alternative newspapers and magazines that emerged during the 1960s and 1970s, often created by activists and countercultural groups to disseminate information that mainstream media neglected or suppressed. These publications played a vital role in the anti-war movement, civil rights movement, and counterculture by providing a platform for dissenting voices and alternative perspectives on social and political issues.
Students for a Democratic Society: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a prominent student organization in the 1960s that advocated for civil rights, social justice, and anti-war activism. SDS became a major force in the anti-war movement during the Vietnam War, encouraging young people to participate in activism and challenge societal norms. Their ideals were rooted in democratic principles and a desire to create a more just society, often aligning with broader countercultural movements of the time.
Kent State Shootings: The Kent State shootings refer to the tragic events that took place on May 4, 1970, when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four students and injured nine others during a protest against the United States' invasion of Cambodia during the Vietnam War. This incident became a pivotal moment in the anti-war movement, highlighting the tensions between the government and student activists, and is often seen as a symbol of the growing dissent against U.S. military involvement in Vietnam.
Berkeley Barb: The Berkeley Barb was a radical underground newspaper published in Berkeley, California, from 1965 to 1980. It became a prominent voice for the counterculture and anti-war movements, advocating for social justice, free speech, and opposition to the Vietnam War. The publication provided a platform for progressive ideas and a counter-narrative to mainstream media, reflecting the values and concerns of a generation seeking change.
Moratorium to end the war in Vietnam: The moratorium to end the war in Vietnam refers to a series of large-scale demonstrations and protests held across the United States in 1969 and 1970, advocating for the immediate withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. These events were pivotal in galvanizing public sentiment against the war and reflected the growing discontent with U.S. involvement in Vietnam, driven by a combination of anti-war activism and the broader counterculture movement that sought social and political change.
The resistance: The resistance refers to the various forms of opposition and activism that emerged in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, primarily in response to the Vietnam War and broader social injustices. This movement encompassed a wide range of activities, including protests, demonstrations, and grassroots organizing, often characterized by a commitment to challenging government policies and societal norms. The resistance also intersected with the counterculture, which sought to redefine cultural values and lifestyles, creating a powerful alliance against the establishment.
The Los Angeles Free Press: The Los Angeles Free Press was one of the first underground newspapers in the United States, founded in 1964 and known for its role in the counterculture and anti-war movements. This publication provided a platform for alternative viewpoints, critical of mainstream media, and became a voice for activists, artists, and young people opposed to the Vietnam War. Its content often challenged conventional narratives, reflecting the ideals of freedom of expression and social change during a tumultuous era.
Vietnamization: Vietnamization was a U.S. policy aimed at reducing American involvement in the Vietnam War by transferring combat responsibilities to South Vietnamese forces. This strategy was introduced by President Richard Nixon in 1969 and sought to build up the South Vietnamese military while gradually withdrawing U.S. troops, reflecting both a response to domestic pressure for de-escalation and the need to maintain U.S. credibility in the region.
Draft card burnings: Draft card burnings were symbolic protests against the military draft during the Vietnam War, where individuals publicly destroyed their draft cards to express their opposition to the war and conscription. This act became a powerful representation of the anti-war movement, embodying resistance to government authority and the perceived injustices of the Vietnam War, while also highlighting the broader counterculture movement that rejected traditional values and norms.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident: The Gulf of Tonkin Incident refers to a series of events in August 1964 involving the USS Maddox and the North Vietnamese Navy, which led to the United States escalating its military involvement in Vietnam. This incident played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and governmental policies towards the Vietnam War, particularly through the subsequent Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that granted President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authority to use military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war.
Anti-establishment: Anti-establishment refers to a political attitude that opposes or challenges the traditional structures of power, authority, and institutional norms. This sentiment often arises from a belief that the existing systems are corrupt, ineffective, or disconnected from the needs of the populace. Movements or figures embodying anti-establishment views frequently advocate for change and seek to empower marginalized voices, as seen in various social movements and political campaigns that have emerged in response to perceived injustices and failures of mainstream institutions.
Peace activism: Peace activism refers to the organized efforts and movements that aim to promote peace and oppose war, often through advocacy, protests, and public education. This term encapsulates a wide range of activities and ideologies, particularly during the tumultuous periods of conflict, where individuals and groups rally against militarism and seek nonviolent solutions to conflict. In the post-1945 United States, peace activism became particularly prominent as a response to military engagements such as the Vietnam War and was often intertwined with broader cultural movements, including the counterculture of the 1960s.
Free speech: Free speech is the right to express one's opinions and ideas without fear of government censorship or punishment. This principle is a cornerstone of democratic societies, often linked to the protection of individual rights and the promotion of open discourse. The concept gained significant prominence during the anti-war movement and counterculture of the 1960s, as activists challenged prevailing norms and sought to voice dissent against government policies, particularly regarding the Vietnam War.
Make love, not war: 'Make love, not war' is a slogan that emerged during the 1960s, encapsulating the anti-war sentiment of the time and promoting peace and love as opposed to violence and conflict. This phrase became emblematic of the counterculture movement, which sought to challenge mainstream values, particularly in relation to the Vietnam War. It represented a shift in societal attitudes, emphasizing personal freedom, sexual liberation, and the belief that peaceful coexistence was preferable to military aggression.
Los Angeles Free Press: The Los Angeles Free Press was a pioneering underground newspaper established in 1964, known for its role in promoting countercultural ideas and anti-war sentiments during a time of social upheaval in the United States. It became a vital voice for the counterculture movement, challenging mainstream media narratives and providing a platform for radical perspectives, particularly regarding the Vietnam War and civil rights issues.
Civil disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws or governmental demands as a form of protest, aimed at bringing attention to social injustices. It is often grounded in moral or ethical beliefs and is a strategy used by individuals or groups to challenge oppressive systems without resorting to violence. This concept became particularly significant in the fight for civil rights and anti-war movements, where individuals sought to highlight the injustices of segregation and war through peaceful means.
March on Washington: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held on August 28, 1963, was a pivotal civil rights demonstration in which over 250,000 people gathered in the nation's capital to advocate for racial equality and economic justice. This monumental event is most famous for Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech, which called for an end to racism and emphasized the importance of civil rights legislation. The march significantly influenced the passage of key legislation in the 1960s that aimed at dismantling segregation and protecting voting rights.