5.1 Gerrymandering
5 min read•august 20, 2024
Gerrymandering is a political tactic that manipulates electoral district boundaries to favor one party. It involves opposition voters into few districts or them across many, resulting in oddly shaped districts that don't reflect natural geographic boundaries or communities.
The practice dates back to 1812 and has evolved with technology. Modern gerrymandering uses GIS software and algorithms to precisely target specific populations and voting patterns, making it more efficient than ever before. This has led to reduced electoral competitiveness and disproportionate representation.
Definition of gerrymandering
- Gerrymandering involves manipulating the boundaries of electoral districts to create a political advantage for a particular party or group
- Achieved by concentrating opposition voters into a few districts (packing) or dispersing them across many districts (cracking) to dilute their voting power
- Results in districts with convoluted, irregular shapes that deviate from natural geographic boundaries and communities of interest
History of gerrymandering in the US
Origin of the term "gerrymandering"
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- Term coined in 1812 after Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry approved a plan that favored his Democratic-Republican Party
- One district resembled a salamander, prompting a newspaper editor to combine Gerry's name with the word "salamander" to create "gerrymander"
- The term has since been used to describe the practice of manipulating district boundaries for political gain
Notable historical examples of gerrymandering
- In 1962, the Supreme Court case established the principle of "one person, one vote," requiring districts to have roughly equal populations
- Despite this ruling, gerrymandering persisted, with both Democrats and Republicans engaging in the practice to varying degrees
- In the 1990s, the advent of computer technology and detailed demographic data enabled more precise and effective gerrymandering techniques
Techniques used in gerrymandering
Packing vs cracking
- Packing concentrates opposition voters into a few districts, ensuring they win by large margins but minimizing their overall representation
- Cracking disperses opposition voters across many districts, diluting their voting power and preventing them from forming a majority in any single district
- Both techniques are used in combination to maximize the advantage of the party in control of redistricting
Incumbent protection vs partisan advantage
- Incumbent protection gerrymandering aims to create safe districts for existing officeholders, regardless of party affiliation
- gerrymandering seeks to maximize the number of districts favoring one party over another
- In practice, these two goals often overlap, as incumbents tend to benefit from districts that favor their party
Impact of gerrymandering on elections
Reduced competitiveness in districts
- Gerrymandered districts often have large majorities of voters from one party, making the general election less competitive
- Incumbents in these districts face little risk of losing to a challenger from the opposing party
- Reduced competition can lead to lower voter turnout and less accountability for elected officials
Disproportionate representation vs popular vote
- Gerrymandering can result in a party winning a majority of seats in a legislature while receiving a minority of the total votes cast statewide
- In the 2012 US House elections, Democrats won 50.6% of the popular vote but only 46.2% of the seats due to Republican-favoring district maps in several states
- This disconnect between popular vote and representation can undermine public trust in the electoral process
Entrenched political power of parties
- Successful gerrymandering can enable a party to maintain control of a legislature even as public opinion shifts away from its policies
- Incumbents in safe districts may be more responsive to party leadership and donors than to their constituents
- Entrenched power can make it difficult for new voices and ideas to enter the political process
Legal challenges to gerrymandering
Relevant Supreme Court cases
- In the 1986 case Davis v. Bandemer, the Supreme Court ruled that partisan gerrymandering could be unconstitutional if it resulted in a "consistent degradation" of voters' influence
- However, the Court struggled to establish a clear standard for determining when gerrymandering crossed this threshold
- In the 2019 cases Rucho v. Common Cause and Lamone v. Benisek, the Court ruled that partisan gerrymandering was a political question beyond the reach of federal courts
State-level efforts to combat gerrymandering
- Some states have adopted independent redistricting commissions to remove the process from the control of partisan legislatures
- Others have enacted constitutional amendments or statutes setting criteria for district boundaries, such as compactness and respect for communities of interest
- State courts have also played a role, with some striking down gerrymandered maps under state constitutional provisions
Role of technology in gerrymandering
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in redistricting
- GIS software allows mapmakers to analyze detailed demographic and electoral data at the census block level
- This enables the creation of districts that precisely target specific populations and voting patterns
- GIS technology has made gerrymandering more efficient and effective than ever before
Algorithms for optimizing partisan advantage
- Some redistricting software includes algorithms that can automatically generate district maps optimized for a particular partisan outcome
- These algorithms consider factors such as incumbent protection, minimizing district compactness, and maximizing the number of seats won by a party
- The use of such algorithms raises concerns about the lack of transparency and accountability in the redistricting process
Potential solutions to gerrymandering
Independent redistricting commissions
- Independent commissions aim to remove the redistricting process from the control of self-interested legislators
- Commission members are typically selected through a bipartisan or nonpartisan process and may include citizens, retired judges, or other impartial experts
- Commissions are often required to follow criteria such as compactness, contiguity, and respect for communities of interest when drawing district boundaries
Proportional representation systems vs single-member districts
- Some advocates argue that the single-member district system used in most US elections is inherently prone to gerrymandering
- Proportional representation systems, such as multi-member districts with ranked-choice voting, could reduce the incentive and ability to gerrymander
- However, transitioning to a new electoral system would require significant legal and political changes at the federal and state levels
International examples of gerrymandering
Comparative analysis of redistricting practices
- Gerrymandering is not unique to the United States, and many other countries have grappled with the issue in their electoral systems
- In Canada, redistricting is handled by independent commissions at the federal and provincial levels, with varying degrees of success in preventing partisan bias
- In the United Kingdom, the Boundary Commissions for England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are responsible for redistricting and operate with a high degree of independence and transparency
Impact of electoral systems on gerrymandering
- Countries with proportional representation systems, such as Germany and New Zealand, are less susceptible to gerrymandering than those with single-member districts
- In mixed-member proportional systems, like those used in Germany and New Zealand, voters cast ballots for both local representatives and party lists, ensuring that the overall composition of the legislature reflects the popular vote
- However, even in proportional systems, there may be opportunities for parties to manipulate district boundaries to their advantage, such as by over-representing rural areas or under-representing minority populations
Key Terms to Review (18)
Baker v. Carr: Baker v. Carr is a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1962 that addressed the issue of legislative redistricting and established the principle of 'one person, one vote'. This case arose when citizens challenged the unequal distribution of legislative representation in Tennessee, highlighting the need for equitable districts. The ruling allowed federal courts to intervene in state redistricting, making it a significant turning point in the fight against gerrymandering and ensuring fairer representation in legislative bodies.
Computational Redistricting: Computational redistricting is the use of computer algorithms and advanced modeling techniques to design electoral district maps, aiming for fairness and efficiency. This approach leverages mathematical and statistical tools to minimize gerrymandering and ensure that districts reflect population distribution more accurately. By employing computational methods, the process seeks to create districts that uphold democratic principles while addressing the complexities of population shifts and demographics.
Cracking: Cracking is a strategic tactic used in gerrymandering that involves dispersing a particular group of voters across multiple electoral districts to dilute their voting power. This technique aims to prevent the group from gaining a majority in any one district, thus weakening their overall influence in elections. By spreading these voters thinly across many districts, political parties can manipulate electoral outcomes to favor their interests, significantly impacting representation and the overall functioning of electoral systems.
David King: David King is a notable figure in the study of gerrymandering, primarily recognized for his contributions to understanding how electoral district boundaries can be manipulated to favor a particular political party. His work highlights the importance of fair representation and the complexities of mapping districts in a way that reflects demographic realities while avoiding bias. King's insights have influenced discussions around electoral reform and the need for impartial districting processes.
Districting Plans: Districting plans are structured blueprints that outline how electoral districts are created and organized within a specific area for political representation. These plans are essential for determining how populations are divided into districts that elect representatives to legislative bodies, affecting the balance of power among political parties and influencing electoral outcomes. They are closely tied to the concept of representation and can be manipulated through various strategies, particularly in the context of gerrymandering.
Electoral bias: Electoral bias refers to systematic errors or distortions in the electoral process that can influence the outcomes of elections, often favoring one group or party over others. This bias can manifest in various forms, including unfair representation due to gerrymandering, which manipulates district boundaries to create advantages for specific political parties. Understanding electoral bias is crucial for analyzing how electoral systems can impact democracy and political representation.
Geospatial Analysis: Geospatial analysis refers to the techniques used to analyze spatial and geographic data to understand patterns, relationships, and trends. This analysis is crucial in various fields, including political geography, as it helps visualize and interpret data related to territory, demographics, and governance. By integrating technology like Geographic Information Systems (GIS), geospatial analysis can inform decision-making in complex areas such as state formation, electoral processes, and boundary adjustments.
Gerry-mandering cases: Gerry-mandering cases refer to legal disputes concerning the manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party over another, often leading to unequal representation. These cases arise when districts are drawn in ways that distort the political power of certain groups, influencing election outcomes and perpetuating partisan advantage. The implications of these cases can significantly affect electoral fairness and the overall democratic process.
Grassroots movements: Grassroots movements are collective actions initiated and driven by ordinary people at the community level, aiming to effect change in political, social, or environmental issues. These movements often arise in response to local problems and rely on the active participation of community members, seeking to influence decision-makers and mobilize support from the bottom up rather than through established political structures or elite influences.
Incumbent advantage: Incumbent advantage refers to the benefits that current officeholders have over challengers in elections, which can significantly influence the outcomes of political contests. These advantages can stem from greater name recognition, established donor networks, access to media, and the ability to leverage their experience and track record. Understanding these advantages is crucial in analyzing electoral dynamics, particularly in the context of gerrymandering, where district boundaries are manipulated to enhance or maintain these advantages.
Majority-minority districts: Majority-minority districts are electoral districts where the majority of the constituents belong to racial or ethnic minority groups. These districts are created to ensure that minority populations have a fair chance to elect representatives who reflect their interests and needs, often arising from efforts to combat historical underrepresentation in political processes and to address issues of gerrymandering and redistricting.
Packing: Packing refers to a gerrymandering technique where voters who support a particular political party are concentrated into a single electoral district to minimize their influence in other districts. This strategy aims to ensure that the party can win by overwhelming margins in fewer districts, effectively diluting their overall power across a larger area. Packing is a crucial tactic in manipulating electoral outcomes and can significantly impact the representation of different groups within electoral systems.
Partisan advantage: Partisan advantage refers to the systematic benefit that one political party has over another in the context of elections and governance, often resulting from strategic practices such as gerrymandering and redistricting. This advantage can influence electoral outcomes by manipulating district boundaries to favor a particular party, impacting representation and the overall political landscape. Understanding partisan advantage is crucial for recognizing how political power can be skewed and how it affects voter behavior and democratic processes.
Political Polarization: Political polarization refers to the growing ideological distance and division between political parties, groups, or individuals, often resulting in a lack of compromise and increased animosity. This phenomenon can lead to a fragmented political landscape where moderate viewpoints are overshadowed by extreme positions, ultimately affecting governance and public discourse.
Redistricting: Redistricting is the process of redrawing the boundaries of electoral districts to reflect changes in population and ensure equal representation. This process often occurs every ten years after the census and can significantly influence political power dynamics, especially when it comes to the drawing of district lines that may favor certain political parties or groups.
Thomas Hofeller: Thomas Hofeller was a prominent Republican strategist and cartographer known for his significant role in the manipulation of electoral district boundaries through gerrymandering. His work aimed to enhance Republican advantages in elections by creatively drawing district lines that favored specific political interests, showcasing the intersection of geography and politics in shaping electoral outcomes.
Voter dilution: Voter dilution refers to the weakening of the voting power of a particular group of people, often as a result of redistricting or gerrymandering. This phenomenon can lead to scenarios where the electoral influence of certain demographics is minimized, making it difficult for them to elect candidates of their choice. Voter dilution is a critical issue in electoral politics, as it can undermine the principle of fair representation.
Voter mobilization: Voter mobilization refers to the process of encouraging and facilitating citizens to participate in elections by casting their votes. This practice is crucial in shaping electoral outcomes, as it aims to increase turnout among specific demographics, particularly those who may be underrepresented in the political process. Effective voter mobilization strategies often involve outreach efforts, such as door-to-door canvassing, phone banking, and organizing events to engage potential voters and provide them with information about the voting process.