10.4 Settler colonialism
7 min read•august 20, 2024
Settler colonialism involves permanent migration to establish a new society, often at the expense of indigenous populations. It differs from other forms of colonialism by focusing on replacing native peoples and creating settler-dominated institutions.
Key characteristics include , cultural erasure, and privileging settler interests. Historical examples include European colonization of the Americas, British settlements in Australia and New Zealand, and French Algeria. Economic, strategic, and ideological motivations drove these colonial projects.
Definition of settler colonialism
- Settler colonialism is a distinct form of colonialism that involves the permanent migration of settlers to a new territory with the aim of establishing a new society and political order
- Differs from other forms of colonialism, such as exploitation colonialism or surrogate colonialism, in its focus on replacing indigenous populations and creating a new settler-dominated society
- Key characteristics include the dispossession of indigenous lands, the erasure of indigenous cultures and identities, and the establishment of settler-controlled political and economic institutions
Distinction from other forms of colonialism
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- Exploitation colonialism focuses on extracting resources and labor from colonized territories without significant settler populations (Dutch East Indies)
- Surrogate colonialism involves the use of local elites to govern on behalf of the colonial power, often with limited settler presence (British rule in India)
- Settler colonialism aims to create a new society dominated by settlers, often through the elimination or marginalization of indigenous populations (French Algeria)
Key characteristics of settler colonies
- Settlers view the colony as their permanent home and seek to establish a new society modeled on their country of origin
- Land is a central focus, with settlers claiming ownership over indigenous territories and reshaping the landscape to suit their needs (agriculture, mining)
- Settler institutions and cultural practices are privileged over indigenous ones, leading to the suppression of indigenous languages, religions, and ways of life
- Settler colonies often develop distinct national identities and political structures that prioritize settler interests over those of indigenous populations (United States, Australia)
Historical examples of settler colonialism
European settler colonies in the Americas
- Spanish and Portuguese colonization of the Americas in the 16th century involved the establishment of settler colonies in areas such as Mexico, Peru, and Brazil
- English and French settlers established colonies in North America in the 17th and 18th centuries, displacing indigenous populations and claiming land for agriculture and (Jamestown, New France)
- The United States and Canada emerged as independent settler nations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, with ongoing expansion and dispossession of indigenous lands (Manifest Destiny)
British settler colonies in Australia and New Zealand
- British colonization of Australia began in the late 18th century with the establishment of penal colonies and later free settler colonies
- The doctrine of terra nullius was used to justify British claims to indigenous lands, leading to widespread dispossession and marginalization of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- In New Zealand, British settlers arrived in the early 19th century and negotiated the Treaty of Waitangi with Māori chiefs, though the treaty's provisions were often ignored or violated by settlers
French settler colonies in Algeria
- France invaded Algeria in 1830 and established a settler colony that lasted until Algerian independence in 1962
- French settlers, known as pieds-noirs, were given privileged access to land and resources, while Algerian Muslims faced discrimination and exclusion
- The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) was a brutal conflict that ultimately led to the departure of French settlers and the establishment of an independent Algerian state
Motivations behind settler colonialism
Economic incentives for settlers
- Settlers were often motivated by the promise of land ownership and economic opportunity in the colonies (homesteading in the American West)
- Colonies provided access to valuable resources such as gold, silver, furs, and timber, which could be extracted and sold for profit
- Settler agriculture and ranching transformed indigenous landscapes and disrupted traditional land use practices (sheep farming in Australia)
Strategic importance for colonial powers
- Settler colonies were seen as a way to extend the power and influence of European states in overseas territories
- Colonies provided strategic locations for naval bases, trading posts, and military outposts (Cape Colony in South Africa)
- Settler populations could serve as a bulwark against rival colonial powers and help to secure imperial borders
Ideological justifications for settlement
- Settlers often justified their actions through ideologies of racial and cultural superiority, viewing indigenous peoples as backward or uncivilized (White Man's Burden)
- Religious beliefs, such as the doctrine of Manifest Destiny in the United States, were used to legitimize settler expansion and land acquisition
- Notions of progress and development were invoked to present settler colonialism as a civilizing mission that would benefit indigenous populations (mission system in California)
Impact on indigenous populations
Displacement and dispossession of land
- Settler colonialism involved the large-scale expropriation of indigenous lands through treaties, purchases, or outright seizure (Dawes Act in the United States)
- Indigenous peoples were often forcibly removed from their ancestral territories and relocated to reservations or other marginal lands (Trail of Tears)
- Dispossession disrupted traditional land use practices and economic systems, leading to poverty and marginalization
Cultural and social disruption
- Settler policies aimed to erase indigenous cultures and identities through forced assimilation and cultural suppression (residential schools in Canada)
- Indigenous languages, religions, and cultural practices were often banned or discouraged in favor of settler norms and values
- The breakup of indigenous families and communities through removal, relocation, and child removal policies had devastating social and psychological impacts (Stolen Generations in Australia)
Resistance and survival strategies
- Indigenous peoples resisted settler colonialism through armed resistance, legal challenges, and cultural resilience (Māori Land Wars, Idle No More movement)
- Survival strategies included adapting to new economic and political realities, maintaining cultural practices in the face of suppression, and building alliances with other indigenous groups
- Indigenous activism and resistance have been ongoing, from historical conflicts to contemporary struggles for land rights, self-determination, and cultural revitalization
Legacy of settler colonialism
Ongoing struggles for indigenous rights
- Indigenous peoples continue to face political, economic, and social marginalization in settler colonial societies
- Struggles for land rights, treaty rights, and self-determination are ongoing in many settler colonial contexts (Dakota Access Pipeline protests, Wet'suwet'en land defense)
- Indigenous activism has gained international attention and support, with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples providing a framework for indigenous rights
Debates over reconciliation and reparations
- Settler colonial societies have grappled with how to address historical injustices and ongoing inequalities faced by indigenous populations
- Truth and reconciliation commissions have been established in some countries to investigate and acknowledge past harms (South African TRC, Canadian TRC)
- Debates over reparations, land restitution, and other forms of redress have been contentious and politically charged (New Zealand Treaty of Waitangi settlements)
Influence on contemporary political landscapes
- Settler colonialism has shaped the political, economic, and social structures of many contemporary nation-states (United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand)
- Ongoing tensions between settler and indigenous populations continue to influence political debates and policy decisions
- Movements for indigenous self-determination and have challenged settler colonial narratives and power structures (Zapatista uprising in Mexico, Kanaka Maoli sovereignty movement in Hawaii)
Theoretical perspectives on settler colonialism
Postcolonial critiques of settler societies
- Postcolonial scholars have analyzed the ways in which settler colonialism perpetuates unequal power relations and cultural hierarchies
- Theorists such as Frantz Fanon and Edward Said have examined the psychological and cultural impacts of colonialism on both colonized and colonizing populations
- Postcolonial critiques have highlighted the ongoing legacies of settler colonialism in contemporary societies, from racialized inequalities to cultural appropriation
Settler colonialism as a structure vs an event
- Some scholars argue that settler colonialism should be understood as an ongoing structure rather than a discrete historical event
- This perspective emphasizes the continuity of settler colonial relations and the need for decolonization as an ongoing process
- Others view settler colonialism as a specific historical phenomenon with lasting impacts, but argue that contemporary societies have moved beyond colonial structures
Intersections with race, gender, and class
- Settler colonialism is deeply intertwined with constructions of race, as settlers often justified their actions through ideologies of racial superiority and used racial categories to maintain social hierarchies
- Gender played a significant role in settler colonial projects, with gendered ideologies shaping colonial policies and practices (cult of domesticity, gendered violence against indigenous women)
- Class divisions within settler societies often intersected with racial and gender hierarchies, with working-class settlers sometimes collaborating with indigenous peoples against elite interests
Challenges to settler colonial narratives
Indigenous movements for self-determination
- Indigenous peoples have long resisted settler colonial narratives and asserted their rights to self-determination and cultural sovereignty
- Movements such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) and the Idle No More movement have challenged settler colonial policies and practices
- Indigenous activism has sought to reclaim land, revitalize cultural practices, and assert political autonomy (Navajo Nation, Nunavut)
Settler solidarity and allyship
- Some settlers have sought to challenge settler colonial narratives and support indigenous struggles for justice and self-determination
- Settler solidarity movements have emerged in various contexts, from the anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa to the Allies in the American Indian Movement
- Allyship involves acknowledging settler privilege, learning from indigenous perspectives, and taking action to support indigenous-led movements and initiatives
Decolonization as a political project
- Decolonization involves dismantling the political, economic, and cultural structures of settler colonialism and creating new forms of social relations
- This can include land restitution, cultural revitalization, and the establishment of indigenous-led political and economic institutions
- Decolonization is an ongoing process that requires the active participation of both indigenous peoples and settler allies
- Scholars and activists have emphasized the need for a decolonial praxis that goes beyond symbolic gestures to enact substantive change in settler colonial societies
Key Terms to Review (18)
Coloniality: Coloniality refers to the enduring patterns of power, knowledge, and social structures established during colonial rule that continue to shape societies and relationships long after formal colonialism has ended. It highlights how colonial legacies manifest in contemporary issues such as racism, inequality, and cultural domination, influencing political, economic, and social dynamics across the globe.
Cultural assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, values, and practices of another culture, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity. This phenomenon can occur voluntarily or through pressure, and it is particularly significant in contexts involving minority groups and dominant cultures. The effects of cultural assimilation can lead to changes in language, traditions, and social norms, which can impact social dynamics and contribute to broader issues of power, identity, and rights.
Decolonization: Decolonization is the process through which colonies gain independence from colonial powers, transitioning from a state of subjugation to self-governance and sovereignty. This movement often involves significant political, social, and economic changes and is deeply connected to the reshaping of national identities, the establishment of new states, and the negotiation of territorial claims that were historically imposed by colonial authorities.
Diaspora: Diaspora refers to the dispersion or spread of any group of people from their original homeland to various parts of the world, often due to factors such as conflict, economic opportunity, or colonialism. This term highlights the connections and cultural exchanges that persist between the diaspora and their homeland, shaping identities and influencing social dynamics in both places. The concept is crucial in understanding historical and contemporary migrations, especially in relation to the impacts of settler colonialism and postcolonial narratives.
Hybridity: Hybridity refers to the blending of different cultural, social, and political elements, resulting in new forms and meanings that transcend traditional boundaries. This concept emphasizes the coexistence and interaction of diverse identities, often arising from colonial histories, migration, and globalization. Hybridity highlights the complexity of identity formation and the dynamic nature of culture in a world where multiple influences converge.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed by the U.S. Congress in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This act is a significant example of settler colonialism, highlighting how governmental policies were used to dispossess Indigenous peoples of their lands and facilitate westward expansion by settlers.
Indigenous sovereignty: Indigenous sovereignty refers to the inherent right of indigenous peoples to govern themselves, make decisions about their land and resources, and maintain their cultural practices independently from external authorities. This concept emphasizes the recognition of indigenous nations as self-determining entities, distinct from settler states, and is crucial in addressing historical injustices and contemporary governance issues.
Intersecting Oppressions: Intersecting oppressions refer to the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, gender, and sexuality, which can create overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage. This concept emphasizes that individuals may experience multiple forms of oppression simultaneously, leading to unique experiences and challenges that cannot be understood by examining each category in isolation.
Land dispossession: Land dispossession refers to the process through which individuals or communities are forcibly removed from their land, often resulting in loss of property, livelihood, and cultural ties to the land. This practice is particularly prevalent in settler colonial contexts, where colonizers claim territory for their own use while displacing indigenous populations.
Land treaties: Land treaties are formal agreements that establish the terms and conditions under which land is exchanged, occupied, or governed, often involving indigenous populations and settler states. These treaties typically outline rights, responsibilities, and the recognition of land ownership, serving as a crucial tool in the context of settler colonialism where new settlers assert control over land traditionally inhabited by indigenous peoples. The signing and enforcement of these treaties often lead to significant changes in land use, governance, and the cultural landscape of the regions involved.
Lila Abu-Lughod: Lila Abu-Lughod is a prominent anthropologist and scholar known for her critical examination of cultural representations and her work on gender and feminism in the context of the Middle East. Her research challenges stereotypes and simplistic narratives about Arab women, particularly in relation to issues of power, identity, and colonialism, making her contributions relevant to understanding settler colonialism's impacts on marginalized communities.
Patrick Wolfe: Patrick Wolfe is a prominent scholar in the field of settler colonial studies, known for his critical analysis of settler colonialism as a distinct form of domination that seeks not only to displace indigenous populations but also to erase their cultural presence. His work emphasizes that settler colonialism is an ongoing process, deeply embedded in the structures of power and land ownership, affecting contemporary social and political landscapes.
Postcolonial critique: Postcolonial critique is an analytical approach that examines the cultural, political, and social legacies of colonialism and imperialism. It focuses on understanding how colonization has shaped the identities and power dynamics of formerly colonized nations, as well as how these legacies continue to affect contemporary global relations. This critique often highlights the ongoing effects of settler colonialism, exploring themes such as identity, representation, and resistance within postcolonial societies.
Reclamation Movements: Reclamation movements refer to efforts aimed at restoring and reclaiming land that has been altered, degraded, or lost due to human activity, often in the context of settler colonialism. These movements seek to re-establish native ecosystems, recover traditional land uses, and assert indigenous rights over territories that have been historically occupied or exploited by colonizers. They are not only environmental initiatives but also powerful statements of cultural identity and resistance against colonial narratives.
Resource extraction: Resource extraction refers to the process of obtaining natural resources from the environment, such as minerals, fossil fuels, and timber. This activity is crucial for economic development and industrial growth but often comes with significant social and environmental costs. It is closely linked to practices that exploit local populations and ecosystems, revealing power dynamics reminiscent of colonial relationships.
Sovereignty declarations: Sovereignty declarations are formal statements made by a state or entity asserting its authority and independence over a specific territory or group of people. These declarations often arise in the context of political struggles, territorial disputes, and colonial histories, and they serve to legitimize claims to sovereignty, particularly in the face of external challenges or opposition.
Territorialization: Territorialization refers to the process through which specific areas or spaces are transformed into distinct territories that are defined, controlled, and often regulated by social, political, or economic entities. This concept is crucial for understanding how identities, power dynamics, and social hierarchies manifest in space, particularly in contexts where land is appropriated and redefined by settlers or colonizers.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was a significant agreement signed in 1848 that ended the Mexican-American War and resulted in the United States acquiring vast territories including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico. This treaty not only marked a dramatic expansion of U.S. territory but also represented a critical moment of settler colonialism as the U.S. government sought to establish control over these new lands, leading to profound changes for Indigenous populations and Mexican residents.