🌎intro to native american studies review
6.1 Establishment of the reservation system
Last Updated on August 9, 2024
The reservation system marked a dark chapter in Native American history. The U.S. government forcibly relocated tribes from their ancestral lands to confined areas, disrupting traditional ways of life. This policy aimed to clear land for white settlers and control Native populations.
Reservations severely limited Native American freedoms and cultural practices. The system, overseen by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, eroded tribal sovereignty and imposed federal control. It set the stage for further assimilation efforts, including the notorious boarding schools.
Removal and Confinement Policies
Indian Appropriations Act and Removal Policies
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- Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 authorized creation of reservations in Oklahoma and other western territories
- Removal policies forcibly relocated Native American tribes from ancestral lands to designated reservations
- Infamous Trail of Tears resulted from Indian Removal Act of 1830, displacing Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole tribes
- Forced migrations caused significant loss of life due to disease, starvation, and exposure to harsh conditions
- Government justified removals as necessary for westward expansion and settlement by white Americans
Reservation System and Land Cessions
- Reservation boundaries established by federal government without tribal input or consent
- Land cessions involved tribes surrendering large portions of traditional territories in exchange for smaller reservation lands
- Treaties often used to formalize land cessions, though many were later broken or ignored by the U.S. government
- Dawes Act of 1887 further reduced tribal lands by dividing reservations into individual allotments
- Surplus lands sold to non-Native settlers
- Resulted in loss of millions of acres of Native American land
Confinement and Cultural Impact
- Confinement on reservations restricted Native American movement and traditional practices
- Hunting and gathering activities severely limited by confined spaces and depleted resources
- Traditional nomadic lifestyles disrupted, forcing tribes to adopt sedentary agricultural practices
- Overcrowding and poor living conditions on reservations led to health issues and increased poverty
- Cultural practices and languages suppressed through boarding schools and assimilation policies
Federal Oversight and Tribal Relations
Treaty System and Bureau of Indian Affairs
- Treaty system established formal agreements between U.S. government and Native American tribes
- Defined land boundaries, resource rights, and obligations of both parties
- Many treaties later violated or unilaterally changed by the U.S. government
- Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) created in 1824 to manage Native American affairs
- Initially part of the War Department, later transferred to Department of the Interior
- Responsible for implementing federal Indian policies and administering reservation services
- BIA agents often wielded significant power over tribal affairs, leading to corruption and mismanagement
Tribal Sovereignty and Federal Control
- Tribal sovereignty recognized in early treaties as inherent right of Native American nations
- Federal government gradually eroded tribal sovereignty through legislation and court decisions
- Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) defined tribes as "domestic dependent nations"
- Major Crimes Act of 1885 extended federal jurisdiction over certain crimes on reservations
- Trust relationship established between federal government and tribes
- Government assumed responsibility for managing tribal lands and resources
- Resulted in increased federal control over tribal affairs and decision-making
Cultural Disruption and Assimilation Efforts
- Reservation system disrupted traditional social structures and governance systems
- Federal policies aimed at "civilizing" Native Americans through forced assimilation
- Boarding schools separated Native children from families and communities
- Prohibited use of Native languages and cultural practices
- Focused on teaching English, Christianity, and Euro-American customs
- Allotment policy undermined communal land ownership and traditional economic systems
- Loss of cultural knowledge and practices due to confinement and assimilation pressures
- Emergence of pan-Indian movements in response to shared experiences of cultural suppression
Key Terms to Review (19)
Land Cessions: Land cessions refer to the formal transfer of land rights from Indigenous peoples to colonial or federal governments, often through treaties or other legal agreements. These cessions significantly impacted Native societies by altering their traditional territories, leading to loss of resources, cultural dislocation, and changes in social structures. Understanding land cessions is essential to grasp the historical context of colonial policies, major treaties, and the establishment of the reservation system.
Cultural Disruption: Cultural disruption refers to the significant upheaval and alteration of a society's cultural practices, beliefs, and social structures due to external influences or events. In the context of Native American experiences, this often resulted from colonization, which led to profound changes in their ways of life, social organization, and cultural continuity. The introduction of foreign diseases, land loss through allotment, and the establishment of a reservation system all contributed to a disconnection from traditional practices and a reformation of identity among Native populations.
Pan-indian movements: Pan-Indian movements refer to efforts that seek to unify various Indigenous peoples across different tribes and regions in North America to address common issues and promote shared identities. These movements emerged primarily in response to the challenges posed by colonialism, forced assimilation, and cultural erosion, aiming to strengthen the political and social power of Native Americans collectively.
Sedentary Agriculture: Sedentary agriculture refers to the practice of farming in a permanent location, where communities cultivate crops and domesticate animals over a long-term period. This method contrasts with nomadic lifestyles and allows for the establishment of stable settlements, which can lead to increased population density and social complexity. It significantly influenced the development of Native American societies as they adapted their agricultural practices to local environments.
Indian Territory: Indian Territory refers to a designated area set aside by the United States government for Native American tribes during the 19th century, primarily as part of the policy of Indian removal. This territory was created to relocate tribes from their ancestral homelands, particularly from the southeastern states, and was intended to serve as a refuge where Native Americans could maintain their cultures and governance free from encroachment by settlers.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1831 that addressed the legal status of Native American tribes and their relationship with state and federal governments. The case arose when the Cherokee Nation sought to prevent the state of Georgia from enforcing its laws on their territory, asserting that they were a distinct nation entitled to self-governance. This decision is crucial in understanding the establishment of the reservation system and the ongoing dynamics between tribal, federal, and state relationships.
Reservation boundaries: Reservation boundaries are the defined geographical limits set by the federal government for designated areas where Native American tribes are allowed to live and govern themselves. These boundaries were established primarily during the 19th century as part of treaties and policies aimed at controlling land use and managing relations between Native Americans and settlers. The establishment of reservation boundaries reflects a significant shift in the relationship between Native nations and the United States government, leading to a complex legal and cultural landscape.
Forced assimilation: Forced assimilation is a process where a dominant culture imposes its customs, beliefs, and values on a minority culture, often leading to the erasure of the minority group's cultural identity. This concept is crucial in understanding the dynamics of power and control in societies, especially in the context of how indigenous populations have been treated historically by colonial forces. It connects deeply to the experiences of Native Americans, particularly during the establishment of the reservation system, where policies aimed to integrate Native peoples into Euro-American culture while undermining their traditional ways of life.
Major Crimes Act: The Major Crimes Act is a federal law enacted in 1885 that gives the federal government jurisdiction over certain serious crimes committed on Native American reservations. This act marked a significant shift in the legal landscape for tribal nations, as it allowed federal authorities to intervene in serious criminal cases that occur on these lands, thereby affecting the autonomy of tribal governments and their ability to govern themselves.
Treaty system: The treaty system refers to the formal agreements made between the U.S. government and various Native American tribes that established the terms of land use, sovereignty, and relationships between the parties. These treaties often aimed to manage conflicts and facilitate the relocation of tribes to designated areas, ultimately leading to the establishment of reservations and a significant alteration of Native American sovereignty.
Indian Appropriations Act: The Indian Appropriations Act was a series of legislative measures passed by the United States Congress beginning in 1851, aimed at managing relations with Native American tribes and establishing a system for the allocation of funds for Indian affairs. These acts facilitated the creation of reservations, designed to confine Native American populations to designated areas, while also providing financial support for various services, including education and healthcare. The underlying intent was to assimilate Native Americans into American society and reduce their land ownership and sovereignty.
Removal Act: The Removal Act, specifically the Indian Removal Act of 1830, was a law passed by the United States Congress that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated areas west of the Mississippi River. This act laid the groundwork for the establishment of the reservation system, as it aimed to open up valuable land for white settlers and agricultural development, while severely disrupting Native American communities and their traditional ways of life.
Cultural erosion: Cultural erosion refers to the gradual loss of a community's cultural identity, traditions, and practices due to external influences and pressures. This process often stems from colonialism, assimilation policies, and globalization, which can lead to the diminishment of indigenous cultures and ways of life. It is particularly significant in understanding the long-term impacts on Native communities and the establishment of reservation systems that often separated Native peoples from their traditional lands and practices.
Bureau of Indian Affairs: The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) is a federal agency within the United States Department of the Interior, established in 1824 to manage relations between the U.S. government and Native American tribes. Its responsibilities include administering land held in trust for tribes, overseeing education and social services, and facilitating tribal governance. The BIA plays a crucial role in the contemporary issues surrounding tribal sovereignty, the establishment of the reservation system, self-determination, and the structure of tribal governments.
Tribal sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions regarding their internal affairs without external interference. This concept is essential for understanding the political independence of Native nations, their social structures, and their relationships with federal and state governments.
Trust relationship: The trust relationship refers to the legal and moral obligation between the federal government and Native American tribes, characterized by the government’s responsibility to protect tribal interests and uphold treaties. This relationship is rooted in historical agreements and treaties, establishing a framework for federal recognition of tribal sovereignty and the provision of services and resources. It underscores the government's duty to act in the best interests of Native peoples while also recognizing their rights to self-determination.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, was a federal law aimed at assimilating Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. This act was part of a broader policy to dismantle tribal sovereignty, promote private land ownership, and encourage Native Americans to adopt Western agricultural practices.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of several Native American tribes, primarily the Cherokee, from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event resulted in the deaths of thousands due to harsh conditions, disease, and starvation, highlighting the devastating impacts of U.S. government policies on Native societies.
Boarding schools: Boarding schools were institutions designed to educate Native American children while attempting to erase their cultural identities and assimilate them into Euro-American society. These schools, often run by the federal government or religious organizations, aimed to 'civilize' Native youth by enforcing English language use and Christian values, significantly impacting their families and communities.