🌎Intro to Native American Studies Unit 6 – Reservation Era & Assimilation Policies

Historical Context

• European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century, leading to widespread displacement and loss of land for Indigenous peoples
• As the United States expanded westward in the 19th century, the government sought to acquire more land for settlement and resource exploitation
• The concept of Manifest Destiny, which held that American expansion across the continent was both justified and inevitable, fueled this drive for territorial acquisition
  • Manifest Destiny was rooted in ideas of racial superiority and the belief that Native Americans were "uncivilized" and in need of assimilation
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the president to negotiate treaties that would force Native American tribes to relocate west of the Mississippi River
  • This policy resulted in the forced removal of numerous tribes, including the Cherokee (Trail of Tears), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole
• The discovery of gold in California in 1848 and the subsequent Gold Rush accelerated westward expansion and led to increased conflicts between settlers and Native American tribes
• As the United States continued to grow and industrialize in the late 19th century, the government sought to confine Native Americans to reservations and assimilate them into mainstream American society

Key Policies and Laws

• The Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 authorized the creation of Native American reservations in what is now Oklahoma
• The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged westward expansion by offering free land to settlers, often at the expense of Native American tribes
• The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 ended the practice of treaty-making with Native American tribes, instead treating them as domestic dependent nations
  • This act marked a significant shift in U.S. policy towards Native Americans, as they were no longer recognized as sovereign entities
• The Dawes Act (General Allotment Act) of 1887 aimed to break up tribal lands by allotting parcels to individual Native Americans
  • The goal was to encourage assimilation by promoting private land ownership and farming
  • Surplus lands were sold to non-Native settlers, resulting in significant land loss for tribes
• The Curtis Act of 1898 extended the provisions of the Dawes Act to the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
• The Burke Act of 1906 amended the Dawes Act, giving the Secretary of the Interior the power to determine when Native Americans were "competent" to manage their allotted lands
• The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born within the country's territorial limits, though many states still denied them voting rights

Reservation System

• Reservations were established as part of the U.S. government's policy to confine Native American tribes to specific areas and to open up land for non-Native settlement
• The reservation system was formalized through a series of treaties, executive orders, and congressional acts in the mid-to-late 19th century
• Reservations were often located on lands deemed undesirable by non-Native settlers, such as arid or semi-arid regions with limited resources
  • This made it difficult for tribes to maintain their traditional ways of life, which often relied on hunting, gathering, and extensive land use
• Living conditions on reservations were often poor, with inadequate housing, limited access to healthcare and education, and high rates of poverty and disease
• The U.S. government maintained control over reservations through a system of Indian agents, who were responsible for distributing rations, enforcing policies, and promoting assimilation
• The reservation system disrupted traditional tribal social structures, as families and communities were often separated and confined to different reservations
• Despite the hardships faced on reservations, many Native American communities managed to preserve aspects of their cultural traditions and identities

Assimilation Strategies

• The U.S. government pursued various strategies to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• Boarding schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, were established to educate Native American children in English, Christianity, and American cultural values
  • Children were often forcibly removed from their families and communities to attend these schools
  • Students were prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
  • The goal was to "kill the Indian, save the man" by erasing Native American identities and assimilating children into American society
• Religious organizations, such as Christian missionaries, played a significant role in assimilation efforts by seeking to convert Native Americans to Christianity
• The suppression of Native American religious practices, such as the Sun Dance and Ghost Dance, was another aspect of assimilation policy
• The promotion of farming and private land ownership through the Dawes Act was intended to encourage Native Americans to adopt a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle
• The U.S. government encouraged Native Americans to adopt Western clothing, hairstyles, and names as part of the assimilation process
• Assimilation policies had devastating effects on Native American communities, leading to the erosion of cultural traditions, languages, and identities

Impact on Native Communities

• The reservation system and assimilation policies had far-reaching and long-lasting impacts on Native American communities
• The confinement of tribes to reservations disrupted traditional ways of life, including hunting, gathering, and seasonal migrations
• The loss of land through the Dawes Act and other policies led to widespread poverty and economic hardship for Native American families
• The suppression of Native American languages, cultural practices, and religious traditions contributed to the erosion of cultural identities and community cohesion
  • Many Native American languages are now endangered or have been lost entirely due to the effects of assimilation policies
• The removal of children from their families to attend boarding schools caused intergenerational trauma and the disruption of family and community bonds
• The high rates of poverty, unemployment, and health disparities on reservations can be traced back to the legacy of the reservation system and assimilation policies
• Despite these challenges, Native American communities have shown remarkable resilience in preserving their cultural traditions and advocating for their rights and sovereignty

Resistance and Adaptation

• Native American tribes and individuals resisted and adapted to the reservation system and assimilation policies in various ways
• Some tribes, such as the Apache and Comanche, engaged in armed resistance against U.S. military forces in the late 19th century
• Other tribes, like the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph, attempted to flee to Canada to avoid being confined to reservations
• Native American leaders, such as Sitting Bull and Red Cloud, fought to protect their people's land, resources, and way of life through negotiations and legal battles
• Many Native Americans found ways to preserve their cultural traditions and languages despite the pressures of assimilation
  • Ceremonies and rituals were often practiced in secret to avoid suppression by Indian agents and missionaries
  • Traditional knowledge and skills, such as basketry and beadwork, were passed down through generations
• Some Native Americans adapted to the changing circumstances by embracing new economic opportunities, such as ranching and tourism
• The Ghost Dance movement of the late 19th century represented a spiritual and political form of resistance to assimilation policies
  • The movement, which prophesied the return of traditional ways of life and the disappearance of white settlers, spread rapidly among tribes
  • The U.S. government's fear of the Ghost Dance culminated in the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, where over 250 Lakota men, women, and children were killed by U.S. troops

Legacy and Modern Implications

• The legacy of the reservation system and assimilation policies continues to impact Native American communities today
• Many reservations continue to face high rates of poverty, unemployment, and health disparities, which can be traced back to the historical trauma and economic disruption caused by these policies
• The loss of land and resources has made it difficult for many tribes to maintain their traditional ways of life and to achieve economic self-sufficiency
• The intergenerational trauma caused by boarding schools and the suppression of cultural traditions has had lasting effects on mental health and community well-being
• However, Native American communities have also shown remarkable resilience and have made significant strides in recent decades
  • The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 gave tribes greater control over the management of federal programs and services on reservations
  • The Native American Languages Act of 1990 recognized the importance of preserving and revitalizing Native American languages
  • The establishment of tribal colleges and universities has provided new opportunities for Native American students to pursue higher education and to study their own cultures and histories
• Native American activists and organizations continue to advocate for tribal sovereignty, treaty rights, and the protection of sacred sites and cultural resources
• The ongoing movement for Indigenous rights and recognition has gained global attention, as evidenced by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007)

Key Figures and Events

• Chief Joseph (1840-1904): Nez Perce leader who led his people on a 1,200-mile journey to resist being forced onto a reservation
• Sitting Bull (1831-1890): Hunkpapa Lakota chief who led resistance against U.S. government policies and fought in the Battle of the Little Bighorn
• Geronimo (1829-1909): Apache leader who led a long resistance against Mexican and American forces in the late 19th century
• Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): U.S. troops killed over 250 Lakota men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota, marking the end of the Indian Wars
• Dawes Act (1887): Legislation that aimed to break up tribal lands by allotting parcels to individual Native Americans to promote assimilation
• Indian Citizenship Act (1924): Granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born within the country's territorial limits
• American Indian Movement (AIM) (1968): Civil rights organization founded to address issues of poverty, discrimination, and police brutality faced by Native Americans
• Occupation of Alcatraz (1969-1971): Native American activists occupied Alcatraz Island to demand the return of unused federal lands to Indigenous peoples
• Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975): Gave tribes greater control over the management of federal programs and services on reservations
• Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) (1990): Required federal agencies and institutions receiving federal funding to return Native American cultural items and human remains to their respective tribes