🌽native american studies review
9.4 Impact of colonial policies on Native American religious freedom
Last Updated on August 9, 2024
Colonial policies severely restricted Native American religious freedom. European colonizers forced conversion to Christianity, banned traditional practices, and implemented cultural assimilation efforts. These actions aimed to eradicate Native spirituality and replace it with European beliefs and customs.
Boarding schools played a crucial role in suppressing Native American religion and culture. Children were taken from their families, forbidden from speaking their languages, and forced to adopt Christian beliefs. This caused lasting trauma and cultural loss for many Native communities.
Colonial Policies Suppressing Native American Religions
Forced Conversion and Religious Suppression
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- European colonizers implemented policies to convert Native Americans to Christianity
- Missionaries established churches and schools to teach Christian doctrine
- Traditional Native American spiritual practices were often banned or discouraged
- Native religious leaders faced persecution and punishment for continuing their practices
- Sacred objects and ceremonial items were frequently confiscated or destroyed
- Many tribes were forced to conduct their rituals in secret to avoid punishment
Cultural Assimilation Efforts
- Colonial governments implemented policies aimed at "civilizing" Native Americans
- Native children were often removed from their families and communities
- English language instruction replaced Native languages in many areas
- Traditional dress, hairstyles, and customs were discouraged or prohibited
- Native Americans were pressured to adopt European-style agriculture and housing
- Tribal governance structures were undermined in favor of European-style systems
Boarding Schools and Their Impact
Establishment and Operation of Boarding Schools
- Boarding schools for Native American children began in the late 19th century
- Government and religious organizations operated these institutions
- Children were often forcibly removed from their families and communities
- Schools aimed to "Kill the Indian, Save the Man" through assimilation
- Students were typically forbidden from speaking their native languages
- Harsh discipline and poor living conditions were common in many schools
Cultural and Religious Suppression in Boarding Schools
- Traditional Native American clothing and hairstyles were prohibited
- Students were given English names to replace their Native names
- Native American cultural practices and ceremonies were banned
- Christian religious instruction was mandatory for all students
- Traditional Native American spiritual beliefs were dismissed as superstition
- Students were taught to view their Native culture as inferior and primitive
Long-term Impacts of Boarding School Policies
- Many Native Americans experienced loss of cultural identity and language
- Intergenerational trauma resulted from family separation and abuse
- Some communities faced difficulties in passing down traditional knowledge
- Boarding school experiences contributed to social issues like substance abuse
- Many former students struggled to reintegrate into their Native communities
- Some positive outcomes included increased literacy and cross-tribal connections
Legal Protections for Native American Religious Freedom
American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA)
- Passed by Congress in 1978 to protect Native American religious rights
- Requires federal agencies to consider Native American religious practices in policy-making
- Allows access to sacred sites for ceremonial purposes
- Protects the use and possession of sacred objects
- Recognizes the importance of traditional Native American spiritual practices
- Does not provide a legal cause of action for violations, limiting its effectiveness
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA)
- Enacted in 1990 to address the handling of Native American cultural items
- Requires federal agencies and institutions to return Native American cultural items to tribes
- Covers human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony
- Establishes a process for the repatriation of items held by federal agencies and museums
- Provides greater protection for Native American burial sites
- Imposes criminal penalties for trafficking in Native American human remains and cultural items
Native American Responses to Religious Suppression
Revitalization Movements and Cultural Preservation
- Ghost Dance movement emerged in the late 19th century as a form of spiritual resistance
- Native American Church incorporated traditional and Christian elements
- Sun Dance ceremonies were revived in many Plains tribes
- Language preservation efforts helped maintain cultural and spiritual traditions
- Traditional healing practices were maintained and revitalized in many communities
- Pan-Indian movements fostered intertribal solidarity and cultural pride
Adaptation and Syncretism
- Some Native Americans incorporated Christian elements into traditional practices
- Native American Christian churches emerged with unique cultural expressions
- Traditional ceremonies were adapted to avoid detection or persecution
- Sacred objects were sometimes hidden or disguised to protect them
- Native American spiritual leaders found ways to continue teaching in secret
- Some communities developed new rituals that combined Native and European elements
Key Terms to Review (18)
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This massacre is often seen as a brutal end to the Indian Wars and symbolizes the extreme violence used by the U.S. government against Native American tribes in response to their resistance to reservation policies and encroachment by settlers.
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) is a U.S. federal law enacted in 1990 that provides a process for museums and federal agencies to return Native American cultural items, including human remains and sacred objects, to their respective tribes. This act recognizes the rights of Native Americans to their ancestral remains and cultural heritage, reflecting broader issues of sovereignty, identity, and cultural preservation.
Spiritual sovereignty: Spiritual sovereignty refers to the inherent right of Indigenous peoples to maintain and practice their spiritual beliefs, traditions, and cultural expressions without interference or oppression from external forces. This concept emphasizes the importance of self-determination in spiritual matters and acknowledges that Indigenous spirituality is deeply intertwined with their identity, land, and community. It highlights the ongoing struggle against colonial policies that have historically restricted or attempted to eradicate Native American religious practices.
Billy Frank Jr.: Billy Frank Jr. was a prominent Native American activist and leader, known for his tireless work in advocating for the fishing rights of Indigenous peoples in the Pacific Northwest. His efforts brought national attention to the issues faced by Native tribes regarding treaty rights and access to natural resources, significantly impacting policies affecting Native American religious freedom and cultural practices tied to fishing.
Ceremonialism: Ceremonialism refers to the practice of rituals and ceremonies that are integral to cultural identity and spiritual expression. These ceremonies often serve as a means of connecting individuals and communities to their traditions, ancestors, and the natural world. In the context of Native American cultures, ceremonialism embodies the rich tapestry of beliefs and practices that have been maintained despite colonial pressures and the impact on religious freedom.
Sacred site protection: Sacred site protection refers to the legal and cultural efforts aimed at preserving locations that hold significant spiritual or religious value to Indigenous peoples. This concept encompasses the safeguarding of these sites from desecration, development, or destruction, ensuring that Native American communities can maintain their cultural practices and connections to the land. By recognizing these sites' importance, sacred site protection intersects with issues of religious freedom and the challenges posed by economic interests that may threaten cultural heritage.
Cultural genocide: Cultural genocide refers to the deliberate destruction of the cultural heritage of a group, aiming to eliminate its identity, beliefs, and practices. This term emphasizes not just physical extermination but also the systematic erasure of traditions, languages, and spiritual practices that define a community. Such actions often stem from colonial policies and institutions that seek to assimilate indigenous populations and undermine their societal structures.
Employment Division v. Smith: Employment Division v. Smith is a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case from 1990 that ruled that states could deny unemployment benefits to individuals fired for using illegal drugs, even if the drug use was part of a religious ceremony. This decision underscored the balance between free exercise of religion and state interests, particularly in how colonial policies have historically impacted Native American religious practices.
Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association: Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association is a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case from 1988 that addressed the issue of Native American religious freedom and land use. The case revolved around the federal government's proposal to build a road through sacred land of the Yurok and Karuk tribes in California, which raised concerns about the protection of religious practices tied to that land. The Court ultimately ruled that the government could proceed with the project, highlighting the ongoing tensions between development and the preservation of Native American spiritual practices.
Acculturation: Acculturation refers to the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits or social patterns of another group, often as a result of prolonged contact. This process can lead to changes in language, customs, and beliefs as one culture influences another, frequently occurring in contexts of colonization or immigration.
Treaty of Greenville: The Treaty of Greenville, signed in 1795, was an agreement between the United States and various Native American tribes in the Northwest Territory following the Battle of Fallen Timbers. This treaty established a boundary line between Native American lands and territories open for settlement by American colonists, marking a significant shift in land ownership and control in favor of the United States, which impacted Native American religious freedom and cultural practices.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting U.S. citizenship. This act marked a significant shift in federal policy from recognizing tribal sovereignty to promoting individual land ownership, which ultimately led to the fragmentation of tribal lands and communities.
Treaty of Fort Laramie: The Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, was an agreement between the United States government and various Native American tribes to establish peace and define territorial boundaries in the Great Plains. This treaty is significant as it reflects early interactions between the U.S. government and Native tribes, highlighting issues of tribal sovereignty, land rights, and self-determination.
American Indian Religious Freedom Act: The American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA), enacted in 1978, aims to protect and preserve the religious practices and beliefs of Native American tribes. This legislation recognizes the importance of sacred sites, traditional rituals, and access to cultural resources that are vital for the spiritual well-being of Indigenous peoples, making it a cornerstone in the ongoing struggle for religious freedom among Native Americans.
Vine Deloria Jr.: Vine Deloria Jr. was a prominent Native American scholar, author, and activist known for his work on Indigenous rights and the critique of U.S. policies affecting Native peoples. His writings emphasize the importance of Indigenous spirituality, culture, and history, linking these aspects to the understanding of origin stories, oral traditions, and contemporary issues faced by Native communities.
Animism: Animism is the belief system that attributes spiritual essence to all living and non-living things, suggesting that everything in nature possesses a spirit or soul. This perspective is often woven into the fabric of many Indigenous cultures, where natural elements like animals, plants, and even rocks are seen as interconnected with human life. In this worldview, the spiritual and physical realms are deeply intertwined, influencing various aspects of culture, such as beliefs and practices surrounding sacred sites, rituals, and the environment.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event resulted in immense suffering, loss of life, and the erosion of Native American cultures and communities.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a law that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. This act aimed to clear land for white settlers and has had long-lasting effects on Native American communities and cultures.