European History – 1890 to 1945 Unit 6 ReviewParis Peace Conference & Interwar Era

Key Players and Their Aims

• Woodrow Wilson (United States) advocated for self-determination, open diplomacy, and a League of Nations to prevent future wars
• David Lloyd George (Great Britain) sought to maintain British naval supremacy and secure German reparations while preserving the balance of power in Europe
• Georges Clemenceau (France) aimed to punish Germany, secure French borders, and obtain reparations to rebuild France after the war
• Vittorio Orlando (Italy) wanted to gain territory promised by the Allies in the Treaty of London (1915) and establish Italy as a major power
  • Sought control over the Adriatic Sea and the port city of Fiume
• Japan aimed to retain control over former German colonies in the Pacific and expand its influence in Asia
• Smaller nations and colonies sought self-determination and independence from imperial powers

The Big Four and Treaty of Versailles

• The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, between Germany and the Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, United States, and Italy)
• The treaty placed sole responsibility for the war on Germany (Article 231, the "war guilt" clause) and imposed harsh penalties
  • Germany lost 13% of its territory and 10% of its population to neighboring countries
  • The Rhineland was demilitarized, and the German army was limited to 100,000 men
  • Germany was prohibited from having an air force, submarines, or tanks
• Germany was required to pay reparations to the Allied Powers, initially set at 132 billion gold marks (later reduced)
• The treaty also established the League of Nations, an international organization designed to promote peace and resolve disputes between nations
• The United States Senate ultimately rejected the Treaty of Versailles and did not join the League of Nations

Redrawing the Map of Europe

• New countries were created from the former Austro-Hungarian Empire: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia
• Poland was reconstituted as an independent state, with access to the Baltic Sea through the Polish Corridor
• Romania gained territory from Hungary (Transylvania) and Russia (Bessarabia)
• The Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained independence from Russia
• Germany lost territory to France (Alsace-Lorraine), Belgium (Eupen-Malmedy), Denmark (Northern Schleswig), and Poland (West Prussia and Posen)
• The Ottoman Empire was partitioned, with France and Great Britain gaining mandates over Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine
• The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) between France and Great Britain divided the Middle East into spheres of influence

Economic Consequences and Reparations

• The war left many European countries with massive debts, high inflation, and weakened economies
• Germany faced hyperinflation in the early 1920s due to the burden of reparations and the French occupation of the Ruhr
  • The German mark became virtually worthless, leading to economic and social instability
• The Dawes Plan (1924) and the Young Plan (1929) attempted to restructure German reparations payments
• The United States provided loans to European countries to help rebuild their economies (e.g., the Dawes Plan)
• The global economic interdependence created by the war and its aftermath contributed to the spread of the Great Depression in the 1930s

League of Nations: Hopes and Realities

• The League of Nations was established to promote international cooperation, peace, and security
• The League had a General Assembly, where all member states were represented, and a Council, which included permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) and non-permanent members
• The League lacked its own military force and relied on member states to enforce its decisions
• Successes of the League included settling border disputes (e.g., between Sweden and Finland), organizing humanitarian aid, and establishing the Permanent Court of International Justice
• Failures of the League included its inability to prevent the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931), the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935), and the German remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)
• The absence of major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union weakened the League's effectiveness

Rise of Nationalism and New Political Ideologies

• The aftermath of World War I saw the rise of nationalism and new political ideologies across Europe
• Fascism emerged in Italy under Benito Mussolini, who promised to restore Italian greatness and establish a strong, centralized state
  • Fascism emphasized nationalism, authoritarianism, and opposition to communism and liberalism
• Nazism, a form of fascism, rose in Germany under Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP)
  • Nazism added elements of racism, antisemitism, and expansionism to fascist ideology
• Communism gained support in Russia, leading to the Russian Revolution (1917) and the establishment of the Soviet Union
• Authoritarian regimes emerged in several European countries, such as Spain under Francisco Franco and Portugal under António de Oliveira Salazar

Social and Cultural Changes in the 1920s

• The 1920s saw significant social and cultural changes, particularly in the United States and Western Europe
• Women gained more independence and political rights, including the right to vote in many countries (e.g., the 19th Amendment in the United States)
• The "Roaring Twenties" in the United States were characterized by economic prosperity, consumerism, and new forms of entertainment (e.g., jazz, radio, and cinema)
• Art movements such as Surrealism, Dadaism, and Expressionism challenged traditional artistic conventions
• The "Lost Generation" of writers, including Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, captured the disillusionment and alienation felt by many after the war
• Technological advancements, such as the widespread use of automobiles and electricity, transformed daily life

Seeds of Future Conflict

• The Treaty of Versailles left many nations feeling resentful and unsatisfied, particularly Germany, which viewed the treaty as a "diktat" (dictated peace)
• The failure to address the principle of self-determination in many regions (e.g., the Sudetenland, Danzig) created tensions among ethnic minorities
• Economic instability and the Great Depression contributed to the rise of extremist political movements and authoritarian regimes
• The League of Nations' inability to effectively resolve disputes and prevent aggression undermined its credibility and encouraged nations to pursue their own interests
• The policy of appeasement adopted by Western powers towards aggressive actions by Germany, Italy, and Japan emboldened these nations to pursue further expansionism
• The ideological divide between fascism and communism, as well as the competing ambitions of nations, set the stage for the outbreak of World War II in 1939