4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

Attribution theory explores how we explain behavior, both our own and others'. It covers internal and external attributions, explanatory styles, and common biases that affect our judgments. Understanding these concepts helps us navigate social interactions and self-perception more effectively.

Person perception processes, including the mere exposure effect and self-fulfilling prophecies, shape how we view and interact with others. Social comparison types further influence our self-evaluation and satisfaction with life circumstances. These concepts are crucial for understanding social psychology.

Internal vs external attributions

When people try to explain why something happened, they usually blame either the person or the situation. Internal attributions (also called dispositional) mean that the behavior happened because of who the person is, while external attributions (also called situational) mean the behavior happened because of outside factors.

If someone does well on a test, different attributions could be made:

• An internal attribution would say they succeeded because they are smart or worked hard.
• An external attribution would say they succeeded because the test was easy or they had a great tutor.

Internal attributions focus on things like:

• Personality traits (they are naturally confident)
• Intelligence (they are smart)
• Effort (they studied a lot)
• Skills and abilities (they are talented at math)

External attributions consider things like:

• The environment (the test was simple)
• Social influences (they had a study group)
• Outside limitations (they didn't have enough time to prepare)
• Temporary conditions (they were feeling sick that day)

People often switch between these explanations depending on the situation. Sometimes, they give themselves credit for successes (internal) but blame failures on outside forces (external), a pattern called the self-serving bias.

Explanatory styles for events

Explanatory style is the way people usually explain what happens to them, both good and bad. This habit of thinking can affect their mental health, motivation, and resilience. There are two main styles:

Optimistic style ☀️

• Attributes good events to internal, stable, and global causes
• Views bad events as external, temporary, and specific
• Example: "I succeeded because of my skills" vs "I failed because it was a tough day"
• When something goes wrong: "I had a bad day, but tomorrow will be better."

Pessimistic style ⛈️

• Sees good events as external, temporary, and specific
• Attributes bad events to internal, stable, and global causes
• Example: "I succeeded because it was easy" vs "I failed because I'm not good enough"
• When something goes wrong: "I failed because I'm not smart enough, and this always happens to me."

These thinking patterns shape how people handle challenges. Optimistic thinkers tend to bounce back from setbacks more easily, while pessimistic thinkers may feel stuck or discouraged. Recognizing and adjusting an explanatory style can help improve resilience and overall well-being.

Biases in attributions

People naturally develop certain biases when making attributions about behavior. These biases can significantly impact relationships and social interactions.

Actor-Observer Bias

• We explain our own actions differently than we explain others' actions.
• When we do something, we blame the situation ("I was late because traffic was terrible.")
• When someone else does the same thing, we blame their personality ("They were late because they are irresponsible.")

Fundamental attribution error

• Overemphasizing personality, underestimating circumstances
• People assume behavior is caused by personality and overlook situational factors.
• Example: If a cashier is rude, we might assume they are a rude person rather than considering they might be having a bad day.

Self-serving bias

• People take credit for their successes but blame outside forces for their failures.
• Example: A student who gets an A on a test says, "I'm really smart," but if they fail, they say, "The test was unfair."

These biases affect how we perceive others and how we explain our own behavior. Being aware of them can help people judge situations more fairly and avoid misunderstandings.

Locus of control

Locus of control refers to a person’s belief about what influences their success or failure in life. It develops through experience and affects motivation, decision-making, and how people handle challenges. Some people believe they control their own fate (internal locus of control), while others think outcomes are mostly due to outside forces (external locus of control).

People with an internal locus of control believe that their actions determine what happens to them. They tend to:

• Work harder toward goals because they believe effort leads to success
• Handle stress better since they feel in control of their situation
• Take responsibility for their choices rather than blaming luck or others
• Actively look for solutions when facing challenges

People with an external locus of control believe that outside forces, such as luck, fate, or other people, shape their lives. They are more likely to:

• Experience learned helplessness, feeling like they have no power to change their situation
• Have lower motivation because they think their actions don't matter much
• Blame others or circumstances for their failures
• Avoid taking risks or trying to solve problems, expecting that things will just happen to them

A person’s locus of control can influence their success in school, work, and personal life. While having an internal locus of control is generally linked to better outcomes, a balance is important. In some situations, recognizing that external factors play a role can help people adjust to setbacks without unnecessary self-blame.

Person perception

Mere exposure effect

The mere exposure effect explains why people tend to like things more simply because they see them often. Even without direct interaction or deep thinking, repeated exposure to something makes it feel more familiar and comfortable. This phenomenon shapes preferences in many areas of daily life.

It is commonly seen in:

• Marketing and advertising, where brands repeatedly show their logos and slogans to increase consumer trust
• Music, where songs played frequently on the radio become more popular over time
• Brand choices, as people are more likely to buy products they have seen before
• Social relationships, where people feel more comfortable around classmates, coworkers, or acquaintances they see regularly

The mere exposure effect works because the brain processes familiar things more easily. When something feels effortless to recognize, people tend to have a more positive reaction to it. This happens unconsciously, meaning people may not even realize that exposure is shaping their preferences.

Self-fulfilling prophecies

A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when a belief or expectation influences behavior in a way that makes the belief come true. This creates a cycle where what we expect ends up becoming reality, even if it wasn't true at first.

The process follows a pattern:

1. A person forms an expectation about a situation or another person.
2. They act in a way that reflects that belief.
3. Others respond based on that behavior.
4. The original belief is reinforced, making it seem true.

This effect can shape many areas of life:

• In school, if a teacher expects a student to do well, they may give them more attention and encouragement, leading the student to perform better.
• In relationships, if someone believes they are unlikable, they may act withdrawn, causing others to avoid them, which reinforces their belief.
• In careers, a person who believes they will succeed may take more risks and opportunities, increasing their chances of advancement.
• In self-confidence, people who expect to fail may not put in effort, leading to poor results that confirm their doubts.

Self-fulfilling prophecies can be positive or negative, depending on the expectation. Recognizing this pattern can help people challenge limiting beliefs and create more positive outcomes.

Social comparison types

People naturally compare themselves to others to understand their own success, abilities, and overall situation. These comparisons shape self-esteem, motivation, and life satisfaction. There are two main types: upward and downward comparisons.

Upward comparisons happen when people compare themselves to those who are more successful, skilled, or fortunate.

• Seeing someone do better can be motivating and inspire self-improvement.
• It can also lower self-esteem if the difference feels too large or impossible to overcome.
• These comparisons often happen in professional settings, where employees measure their success against coworkers.
• They can influence career satisfaction by affecting how people see their progress and potential.

Downward comparisons happen when people compare themselves to those who are worse off in some way.

• This can boost self-esteem by making someone feel more capable or fortunate.
• It helps provide perspective, reminding people that their situation could be worse.
• However, it can reduce motivation if people feel too comfortable with their current level of success.
• Relying too much on downward comparisons can lead to complacency and a lack of personal growth.

Relative deprivation occurs when social comparisons create feelings of unfairness. If people see others with more advantages, they may feel dissatisfied with their own situation. This can lead to frustration, motivation for change, and even social movements when many people feel deprived in the same way.