The Second Red Scare
Origins and Context
The Second Red Scare (late 1940s to late 1950s) grew directly out of early Cold War tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. A series of alarming events made many Americans genuinely afraid that communism was spreading and that Soviet spies had penetrated the U.S. government.
Several developments fueled this fear:
- The Soviet Union successfully tested an atomic bomb in 1949, years earlier than American officials expected
- Mao Zedong's communist forces won the Chinese Civil War in 1949, meaning the world's most populous country had "gone red"
- The Korean War broke out in 1950, putting American soldiers in direct combat against communist forces
The federal government responded by ramping up domestic security. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), originally established in 1938, intensified its investigations into alleged communist infiltration of American institutions. President Truman issued Executive Order 9835 in 1947, creating a federal employee loyalty program that required background checks and questions about political affiliations. Workers suspected of communist ties could be dismissed.
Factors Contributing to Anti-Communist Sentiment
Cold War foreign policy developments reinforced the sense that communism was an existential threat:
- The Truman Doctrine (1947) committed the U.S. to supporting nations resisting communist subversion, framing the Cold War as a global struggle
- The Berlin Blockade (1948–1949) showed that the Soviet Union was willing to use aggressive tactics in Europe, deepening the sense of confrontation
- The rise of communist governments across Eastern Europe made it look like the Soviet sphere of influence was expanding rapidly
Domestically, the Rosenberg case became a lightning rod. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of passing nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union and executed in 1953. Whether or not the punishment fit the crime remains debated, but at the time, the case confirmed for many Americans that communist spies had infiltrated the country at the highest levels.
McCarthyism's Tactics and Impact
Senator Joseph McCarthy's Anti-Communist Campaign
Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican from Wisconsin, became the most visible figure of the Red Scare. In February 1950, he gave a speech in Wheeling, West Virginia, claiming to hold a list of known communists working in the State Department. The exact number he cited varied from speech to speech, and he never produced solid evidence to back up his claims.
That pattern defined McCarthyism: making sweeping accusations of disloyalty without credible proof. McCarthy's tactics included:
- Publicly naming individuals as suspected communists, often based on flimsy or fabricated evidence
- Using congressional hearings to intimidate witnesses, pressuring them to name others or face being labeled disloyal
- Exploiting media coverage to amplify fear and keep himself in the spotlight
His investigations reached into government agencies, Hollywood, universities, and the military. The term "McCarthyism" came to describe any practice of making unfounded accusations of subversion or treason.
Consequences of McCarthy's Actions
McCarthy's campaign had real consequences for real people. The most well-known example is the Hollywood Ten, a group of screenwriters and directors who refused to answer HUAC's questions about their political beliefs. They were cited for contempt of Congress, jailed, and blacklisted from the film industry. Hundreds of other entertainment professionals lost their livelihoods after being named or suspected.
McCarthy's downfall came when he overreached by targeting the U.S. Army in 1954. The Army-McCarthy hearings were broadcast on national television, and for the first time, millions of Americans watched McCarthy's bullying tactics in real time. The turning point came when Army lawyer Joseph Welch confronted McCarthy on camera: "Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?"
Public opinion shifted sharply. In December 1954, the Senate voted 67–22 to censure McCarthy for conduct unbecoming a senator. He remained in office but lost his influence and died in 1957.
McCarthyism's Effects on America
Impact on Civil Liberties and Political Discourse
McCarthyism's most damaging legacy was the chilling effect it had on free expression. Even people with no connection to communism changed their behavior out of fear:
- Many Americans avoided joining unions, civil rights organizations, or any group that might attract suspicion
- Political debate narrowed significantly, as politicians used accusations of being "soft on communism" to discredit opponents
- Self-censorship became widespread; people were reluctant to voice dissenting opinions in workplaces, schools, and public life
The entertainment industry was hit especially hard. Studio executives maintained blacklists of suspected communists, and careers built over decades were destroyed based on rumor or association.
Cultural and Societal Consequences
The Red Scare reinforced a broader culture of conformity in 1950s America. Standing out or challenging mainstream values carried the risk of being labeled subversive. This conformist pressure showed up in popular culture through TV shows like Leave It to Beaver and Father Knows Best, which presented an idealized, uniform vision of American family life.
In academia, the effects were particularly corrosive. Some universities required faculty to sign loyalty oaths, and professors who refused faced dismissal. Students and scholars avoided controversial research topics. The result was a period of diminished intellectual freedom at American colleges and universities.
The climate of suspicion also left a lasting mark on American political culture. Long after McCarthy's censure, the fear of being accused of disloyalty shaped how people engaged with politics and public life.
Response to Communist Infiltration
Government Actions and Legislation
Beyond McCarthy's personal crusade, the federal government passed several laws aimed at combating communist activity:
- The Smith Act (1940) made it illegal to advocate the violent overthrow of the government. During the Red Scare, it was used to prosecute leaders of the Communist Party USA.
- The McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) required communist organizations to register with the government and authorized the detention of suspected subversives during national emergencies. Truman vetoed the bill, calling it a threat to civil liberties, but Congress overrode his veto.
- The Subversive Activities Control Board was created to investigate and monitor suspected communist organizations.
These measures reflected genuine security concerns, but they also swept up many people who posed no real threat.
Public Reaction and Opposition
Not everyone went along with the Red Scare. Some prominent voices pushed back against McCarthyism even when it was risky to do so:
- Edward R. Murrow, one of the most respected journalists in the country, used his CBS television program See It Now to directly challenge McCarthy's methods in a March 1954 broadcast. Murrow let McCarthy's own words and footage speak for themselves, and the episode is widely credited with turning public opinion.
- The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) opposed loyalty oaths and defended individuals targeted by anti-communist investigations.
Over time, McCarthyism lost public support as its tactics grew more extreme and evidence of the massive communist infiltration McCarthy described never materialized. The Senate censure in 1954 marked the formal end of McCarthy's influence, though the broader Red Scare mentality faded more gradually over the rest of the decade.