1.1 Presidential and Congressional Reconstruction
4 min read•july 31, 2024
After the Civil War, the U.S. faced the challenge of reuniting the nation. Presidential Reconstruction, led by Lincoln and Johnson, aimed for quick reintegration. However, Radical Republicans in Congress pushed for a more punitive approach to ensure civil rights for freed slaves.
The struggle between Johnson and Congress shaped Reconstruction policies. While some progress was made in education and social welfare, economic reforms fell short. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments marked significant legal gains, but their impact was limited by Southern resistance and lack of enforcement.
Presidential vs Congressional Reconstruction
Lincoln and Johnson's Lenient Approach
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- Presidential Reconstruction led by and aimed to quickly reintegrate Confederate states back into the Union
- Lincoln's (1863) offered amnesty to Southerners who took an oath of loyalty to the Union
- Allowed states to establish new governments after 10% of voters took the oath
- Johnson's Reconstruction plan continued Lincoln's policies
- Granted pardons to ex-Confederates
- Allowed Southern states to elect new governments without federal oversight
Radical Republicans' Punitive Approach
- Congressional Reconstruction driven by Radical Republicans sought to punish the South and ensure civil rights for freed slaves
- The (1864) passed by Congress but pocket vetoed by Lincoln
- Required 50% of a state's white males to take the loyalty oath
- Limited voting rights to those who had never supported the Confederacy
- The (1867) divided the South into five military districts
- Required states to ratify the
- Granted voting rights to African American men
Reconstruction Policies' Effectiveness
Successes in Education and Social Welfare
- The ###'s_Bureau_0### (1865) provided food, clothing, medical care, and education to freed slaves and poor whites in the South
- Helped them transition to freedom
- Worked to negotiate labor contracts between freed slaves and white landowners, although this often resulted in exploitative arrangements
- Establishment of public schools in the South during Reconstruction significantly increased literacy rates among African Americans and poor whites
- However, many schools remained segregated with funding disparities between white and black schools
Limitations in Economic and Political Reform
- Reconstruction governments in the South, which included African American representatives, passed laws to improve infrastructure, establish public schools, and reform the tax system
- Despite these efforts, the Southern economy remained heavily dependent on agriculture with limited industrial development
- Failure of Reconstruction governments to redistribute land to freed slaves left many African Americans economically disadvantaged
- Tied to the plantation system through sharecropping
Johnson vs Congress: Political Struggles
Clashes over Reconstruction Policies
- Johnson, a Southern Democrat, clashed with Radical Republicans in Congress over the scope and severity of Reconstruction policies
- Johnson vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill (1866), arguing it was an unconstitutional expansion of federal power
- Congress overrode his veto, marking the first time in U.S. history a major bill became law without presidential approval
Impeachment and Power Struggle
- The (1867) prohibited the president from removing certain office holders without Senate approval
- Aimed at protecting Radical Republican allies in Johnson's administration
- Johnson's attempt to remove Secretary of War Edwin Stanton in violation of the Tenure of Office Act led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives (1868)
- The Senate ultimately acquitted Johnson by one vote
- The impeachment trial weakened his presidency and allowed Congress to take control of Reconstruction
13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments' Impact
Abolition of Slavery and Citizenship Rights
- The (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States
- Allowed for involuntary servitude as punishment for a crime, which led to exploitation of African American labor through the convict lease system
- The 14th Amendment (1868) granted citizenship to all persons born in the United States, including former slaves
- Prohibited states from denying citizens equal protection under the law
- Overturned the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision, which had held that African Americans were not citizens
Voting Rights and Southern Resistance
- The (1870) prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude
- Enfranchised African American men, leading to the election of black representatives to state legislatures and the U.S. Congress during Reconstruction
- Southern states used literacy tests, poll taxes, and other discriminatory measures to suppress African American voting
- Effectively nullified the amendment's intent for decades
- Despite these amendments representing significant legal gains for African Americans, their impact was limited by:
- Southern resistance
- Supreme Court decisions like (1896)
- Lack of federal enforcement after Reconstruction ended (1877)
Key Terms to Review (22)
13th amendment: The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. This amendment marked a significant turning point in American history, as it legally ended the institution of slavery and laid the groundwork for future civil rights advancements. It was a critical element during the Reconstruction era, as it aimed to address the rights of newly freed African Americans and influenced various initiatives like the Freedmen's Bureau.
14th Amendment: The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, is a crucial part of the United States Constitution that grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection under the law. It was designed to secure the rights of former slaves following the Civil War and laid the groundwork for future civil rights advancements, affecting various social and legal developments over time.
15th Amendment: The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, prohibits the federal and state governments from denying citizens the right to vote based on 'race, color, or previous condition of servitude.' This amendment was a significant milestone in the fight for African American rights and aimed to secure voting rights for freedmen following the Civil War. It is also closely tied to the era of Reconstruction, reflecting the struggle to integrate formerly enslaved people into American political life.
Abraham Lincoln: Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He is best known for leading the nation through the Civil War and for his efforts in abolishing slavery, particularly through the Emancipation Proclamation. His presidency laid the foundation for Reconstruction, which aimed to rebuild the nation and integrate formerly enslaved people into society after the war.
Andrew Johnson: Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869, after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. His presidency is marked by his attempts to implement a lenient Reconstruction policy aimed at quickly reintegrating the Southern states into the Union, which put him at odds with the more radical members of Congress who sought stricter measures for rebuilding the South and ensuring rights for freed slaves.
Black codes: Black codes were laws enacted in the southern United States after the Civil War that aimed to restrict the rights and freedoms of newly freed African Americans. These laws were designed to maintain white supremacy and control over the labor and social lives of African Americans, effectively undermining the gains made during Reconstruction. The black codes served as a significant barrier to true equality and played a crucial role in shaping the socio-political landscape of the post-war South.
Civil Rights Act of 1866: The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that aimed to protect the civil rights of all citizens, particularly newly freed African Americans following the Civil War. This act granted citizenship and equal protection under the law regardless of race, countering the restrictive Black Codes that many Southern states had enacted to limit the rights of freed slaves. The act laid the groundwork for future civil rights protections and highlighted the contentious struggle between President Andrew Johnson's lenient Reconstruction policies and the more radical approach advocated by Congressional leaders.
Election of 1876: The election of 1876 was a highly contentious presidential election in the United States between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. This election is significant because it was marked by widespread voter intimidation, disputes over electoral votes, and a lack of clear resolution, ultimately leading to the Compromise of 1877 which ended Reconstruction and allowed Hayes to assume the presidency in exchange for withdrawing federal troops from the South.
Freedmen: Freedmen were formerly enslaved individuals who were liberated during or after the Civil War, particularly through legislative measures such as the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment. This term is crucial to understanding the social and political changes that occurred during the Reconstruction era, as freedmen sought to establish their rights and integrate into a society that had previously denied them basic freedoms and opportunities.
Freedmen's Bureau: The Freedmen's Bureau was a federal agency established in 1865 to assist formerly enslaved individuals in transitioning to freedom and integrating into society. It provided essential services such as education, healthcare, and employment assistance while also overseeing labor contracts and protecting the civil rights of African Americans during the tumultuous Reconstruction era.
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson: The impeachment of Andrew Johnson was a significant political event in 1868 where the 17th President of the United States faced charges brought by the House of Representatives, largely over his violation of the Tenure of Office Act. This situation arose during a tumultuous period of Reconstruction, reflecting the intense conflict between Johnson and Congress regarding how to handle the Reconstruction of the South following the Civil War. The impeachment highlighted the struggle over presidential power and congressional authority during a critical time in American history.
Ku Klux Klan: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is a white supremacist hate group that emerged in the United States during the Reconstruction era after the Civil War, known for promoting racist ideologies and using terror to suppress African American rights. This organization aimed to maintain white dominance through intimidation, violence, and political influence, particularly in response to the advancements of African Americans during Reconstruction and the establishment of Jim Crow laws that further enforced racial segregation.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.' This case reinforced and legitimized the growing system of racial discrimination and segregation, particularly in the Southern United States, and laid the groundwork for Jim Crow laws that enforced racial separation in public facilities and services.
Radical republicanism: Radical republicanism refers to a political ideology that emerged during the Reconstruction era, advocating for the rights of freed slaves and a transformative approach to rebuilding the South after the Civil War. This ideology sought to impose strict measures on the Southern states, including military rule and civil rights legislation, to ensure equality and prevent the resurgence of the pre-war social order. Radical Republicans aimed to secure full citizenship and voting rights for African Americans, often clashing with more moderate approaches to Reconstruction.
Reconstruction Acts: The Reconstruction Acts were a series of laws passed by Congress in 1867 aimed at rebuilding and reforming the Southern states after the Civil War. These acts divided the South into five military districts, each governed by a Union general, and laid out the process for these states to rejoin the Union, which included drafting new state constitutions that guaranteed voting rights for African American men. The acts represented a significant shift towards a more radical approach to Reconstruction, emphasizing civil rights and federal oversight.
Sharecropping: Sharecropping was an agricultural system that emerged in the Southern United States after the Civil War, where landowners provided land, tools, and seed to tenants in exchange for a share of the crop produced. This system often perpetuated a cycle of debt and poverty among African Americans and poor whites, as sharecroppers frequently struggled to pay off their debts to landowners, leading to economic exploitation.
Ten Percent Plan: The Ten Percent Plan was a proposal by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War aimed at facilitating the reconstruction of the Southern states. This plan stipulated that once ten percent of the voters in a Confederate state took an oath of allegiance to the Union and accepted the end of slavery, they could form a new state government and be readmitted to the Union. The plan was designed to encourage Southern states to rejoin the Union quickly and to promote a lenient approach towards former Confederates.
Tenure of Office Act: The Tenure of Office Act was a federal law enacted in 1867 that restricted the president's power to remove certain officeholders without the Senate's approval. This act aimed to protect the positions of officials appointed during the Reconstruction era and was a key point of contention between President Andrew Johnson and Congress. The law ultimately contributed to the impeachment of Johnson, highlighting the tensions between executive authority and legislative power during this transformative period in American history.
Thaddeus Stevens: Thaddeus Stevens was a prominent Republican leader and a key figure in the U.S. House of Representatives during the Reconstruction era, known for his strong advocacy of civil rights and radical measures to reshape the South after the Civil War. As a fierce opponent of President Andrew Johnson's lenient policies towards the South, Stevens played a crucial role in the Congressional Reconstruction efforts aimed at ensuring political and social equality for freed slaves and punishing Confederate leaders. His vision included land redistribution and a commitment to full citizenship rights for African Americans.
United States v. Reese: United States v. Reese was a significant Supreme Court case decided in 1876 that addressed voting rights and the enforcement of the 15th Amendment. This case highlighted the limitations of federal authority in protecting African American voters during Reconstruction, as it involved a dispute over the interpretation of laws related to voter discrimination and access to the polls. The decision underscored the challenges faced by the federal government in ensuring civil rights for newly freed African Americans during this tumultuous period.
Wade-Davis Bill: The Wade-Davis Bill was a proposal put forward in 1864 by Senator Benjamin Wade and Representative Henry Winter Davis as a more stringent alternative to Abraham Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan for Reconstruction. It aimed to impose tougher conditions for Southern states to rejoin the Union, including requiring a majority of white males in each state to take a loyalty oath and guarantee civil rights for freed slaves. This bill reflected the growing divide between President Lincoln and Congress over the direction of Reconstruction efforts.
White League: The White League was a paramilitary organization formed in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era, aimed at undermining Republican governance and restoring white supremacy. The group emerged in 1874, primarily in Louisiana, and was part of a broader wave of violent resistance against Reconstruction policies and efforts to secure civil rights for African Americans. Their actions were characterized by intimidation, violence, and even murder against black individuals and white Republicans, as they sought to reinstate Democratic control in the South.