🛒Principles of Microeconomics Unit 11 – Monopoly and Antitrust Policy

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Monopoly a market structure characterized by a single seller, selling a unique product with no close substitutes
• Natural monopoly a monopoly that arises due to the high fixed or start-up costs of operating a business in a particular industry
• Antitrust laws regulations and laws passed by the government to regulate monopolies and promote competition (Sherman Antitrust Act, Clayton Antitrust Act)
• Price discrimination the practice of charging different prices to different consumers for the same product or service
• Deadweight loss the loss of economic efficiency that occurs when the equilibrium outcome is not achievable or not achieved
• Economies of scale the cost advantages that businesses can exploit by expanding their scale of production
• Barriers to entry the obstacles or hindrances that make it difficult for new firms to enter a market (high start-up costs, patents, government regulations)

Characteristics of Monopolies

• Single seller there is only one firm that produces all the output for the entire market
• No close substitutes the monopolist's product is unique and cannot be easily replaced by other products
• Price maker the monopolist has significant control over the price of the product due to the lack of competition
• High barriers to entry other firms cannot easily enter the market to compete with the monopolist
• Economies of scale monopolists often benefit from lower average costs as they increase production
• Profit maximizer like other firms, monopolists seek to maximize their profits
• Inefficient allocation of resources monopolies can lead to a less than optimal allocation of resources compared to perfect competition

Types of Monopolies

• Natural monopoly arises when a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a lower cost than could two or more firms (utilities, telecommunications)
• Geographic monopoly exists when a firm is the only supplier of a product or service in a certain geographic area
  • Local monopolies may exist for services such as cable television or internet access in certain regions
• Government-granted monopoly created through government actions such as granting a firm the exclusive right to produce a specific good (patents, copyrights)
• Technological monopoly occurs when a firm has exclusive ownership of a manufacturing process, software, or other technology that allows it to produce a unique product
• Cartel a form of oligopoly where a group of firms act together to coordinate prices and production (OPEC)

Monopoly Pricing and Output Decisions

• Profit maximization monopolists, like other firms, aim to maximize their profits by producing at the quantity where marginal revenue equals marginal cost $(MR = MC)$
• Marginal revenue the additional revenue a monopolist earns by selling one more unit of output
  • For monopolists, marginal revenue is always below the price because they must lower the price on all units to sell an additional unit
• Monopoly pricing because monopolists face a downward-sloping demand curve, they can influence the market price by adjusting their output level
• Inefficiency monopoly pricing leads to allocative inefficiency because the price is set above marginal cost $(P > MC)$
• Price discrimination monopolists may engage in price discrimination to capture more consumer surplus and increase profits
  • First-degree (perfect) price discrimination charges each consumer the maximum price they are willing to pay
  • Second-degree price discrimination offers different prices for different quantities purchased (quantity discounts)
  • Third-degree price discrimination charges different prices to different consumer groups based on their price elasticity of demand (student discounts, senior discounts)

Economic Effects of Monopolies

• Higher prices compared to a competitive market, monopolies tend to charge higher prices, reducing consumer surplus
• Lower output monopolies typically produce less output than would be produced in a competitive market, leading to a deadweight loss
• Reduced consumer surplus monopoly pricing transfers some of the consumer surplus to the producer in the form of economic profits
• Productive inefficiency monopolies may lack the incentive to minimize costs and operate efficiently, as they do not face competitive pressures
• Dynamic inefficiency monopolies may have less incentive to invest in research and development or to innovate, as they face no threat of competition
• Rent-seeking behavior monopolies may engage in rent-seeking activities, such as lobbying for regulations that maintain their monopoly power
• Income inequality the presence of monopolies can contribute to income inequality, as the monopoly profits accrue to the owners and shareholders of the firm

Antitrust Laws and Regulations

• Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) prohibits any contract, combination, or conspiracy in restraint of trade, as well as monopolization or attempted monopolization
• Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) addresses specific practices such as price discrimination, tying arrangements, and mergers that may substantially lessen competition
• Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) established the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to investigate and prevent unfair methods of competition and unfair or deceptive acts or practices
• Robinson-Patman Act (1936) strengthens the Clayton Act's prohibitions on price discrimination
• Celler-Kefauver Act (1950) amended the Clayton Act to prohibit vertical and conglomerate mergers that substantially lessen competition
• Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act (1976) requires companies to notify the FTC and the Department of Justice before consummating mergers or acquisitions that exceed certain thresholds

Case Studies and Famous Monopolies

• Standard Oil (1870-1911) John D. Rockefeller's company controlled over 90% of the U.S. oil refining capacity before being broken up by the Supreme Court under the Sherman Antitrust Act
• AT&T (1885-1984) operated as a legally sanctioned monopoly for much of the 20th century until it was broken up into regional "Baby Bells" in 1984
• Microsoft (1975-present) faced antitrust charges in the late 1990s for bundling its Internet Explorer web browser with its Windows operating system
  • The company reached a settlement with the Department of Justice in 2001
• Google (1998-present) has faced scrutiny for its dominance in online search and advertising, with the Department of Justice filing an antitrust lawsuit against the company in 2020
• Facebook (2004-present) has been investigated for its acquisitions of potential competitors (Instagram, WhatsApp) and its control over user data and advertising

Current Issues and Debates

• Big Tech antitrust concerns there is ongoing debate about whether large technology companies such as Google, Facebook, Amazon, and Apple have become too dominant and should be subject to antitrust action
• Intellectual property and monopoly power some argue that intellectual property rights (patents, copyrights) may grant too much monopoly power and hinder innovation, while others maintain that they are necessary to incentivize investment in research and development
• Natural monopolies and regulation questions persist about the appropriate level of regulation for natural monopolies, balancing the need to protect consumers from monopoly pricing with the potential for regulatory capture and inefficiency
• Globalization and international competition the rise of globalization has led to debates about the effectiveness of domestic antitrust laws in addressing the market power of multinational corporations
• Merger review and enforcement there are ongoing discussions about the appropriate standards for reviewing mergers and acquisitions, and whether current enforcement is sufficient to maintain competition
• Monopolies and income inequality concerns have been raised about the role of monopolies in contributing to income and wealth inequality, as well as their potential impact on political influence and democratic institutions