Glossary

9.6 Humanitarian intervention

8 min read•august 20, 2024

Humanitarian intervention is a complex issue in international relations, balancing state with protecting . It involves military force to address severe crises within a sovereign state, often without consent. The doctrine and prevention of atrocities are key justifications.

Challenges include sovereignty concerns, unintended consequences, and lack of consensus. Historical examples like Rwanda and Kosovo highlight successes and failures. The UN plays a crucial role through Security Council authorization and . Regional organizations also contribute to interventions and humanitarian assistance efforts.

Defining humanitarian intervention

  • Humanitarian intervention involves the use of military force by external actors to address severe human rights violations or humanitarian crises within a sovereign state
  • Interventions are typically carried out without the consent of the state in question, raising debates about the balance between state sovereignty and the protection of human rights
  • Key criteria for humanitarian intervention include the existence of large-scale loss of life, ethnic cleansing, or other grave human rights abuses that the state is unwilling or unable to prevent

Justifications for intervention

Responsibility to protect

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  • The responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine, endorsed by the UN in 2005, asserts that the international community has a responsibility to intervene when a state fails to protect its population from mass atrocities
  • R2P emphasizes the primary responsibility of states to protect their citizens, but allows for international action when a state is unwilling or unable to do so
  • The doctrine outlines three pillars: the responsibility to prevent, react, and rebuild

Prevention of atrocities

  • Humanitarian intervention is often justified as a means to prevent or halt ongoing atrocities such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity
  • Early intervention can potentially save lives and prevent the escalation of violence (Rwanda genocide, where early action could have saved countless lives)
  • Proponents argue that the international community has a to act in the face of such grave human rights abuses

Human rights violations

  • Severe and systematic human rights violations, such as torture, extrajudicial killings, and arbitrary detention, can serve as a justification for humanitarian intervention
  • The protection of fundamental human rights is seen as a universal obligation that transcends state sovereignty
  • Interventions may aim to stop ongoing abuses and create conditions for the restoration of human rights and the rule of law (Kosovo conflict, where intervention aimed to protect ethnic Albanians from Serbian oppression)

Challenges of intervention

Sovereignty vs human rights

  • Humanitarian intervention poses a challenge to the principle of state sovereignty, which holds that states have the right to govern their internal affairs without external interference
  • Critics argue that interventions violate the UN Charter's prohibition on the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state
  • The tension between sovereignty and human rights protection lies at the heart of debates surrounding the legitimacy of humanitarian intervention

Unintended consequences

  • Military interventions can have unintended consequences that worsen the situation on the ground or create new problems
  • The use of force may lead to civilian casualties, destruction of infrastructure, and displacement of populations ( bombing campaign in Kosovo, which caused civilian deaths and damage to civilian targets)
  • Interventions can also destabilize regions, create power vacuums, and contribute to the rise of extremist groups (Libya intervention, which led to ongoing instability and the rise of militant groups)

Lack of international consensus

  • Achieving international consensus on when and how to intervene is a significant challenge
  • Permanent members of the UN Security Council may veto proposed interventions based on their own strategic interests
  • Disagreements over the criteria for intervention, the appropriate level of force, and the post-intervention strategy can hinder effective action (, where lack of consensus delayed and limited the international response)

Historical examples

Rwanda genocide

  • In 1994, an estimated 800,000 to 1 million Rwandans, primarily Tutsis, were killed by Hutu extremists over the course of 100 days
  • The international community, including the UN, failed to intervene effectively despite clear warnings and evidence of the ongoing genocide
  • The tragedy highlighted the need for timely and decisive action in the face of mass atrocities

Kosovo conflict

  • In 1999, NATO launched a 78-day air campaign against Serbia to stop the ethnic cleansing of Kosovar Albanians
  • The intervention, which occurred without , raised questions about the legality and legitimacy of humanitarian intervention
  • While the campaign ultimately led to the withdrawal of Serbian forces and the establishment of a UN-administered Kosovo, it also resulted in civilian casualties and damage to infrastructure

Darfur crisis

  • The conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which began in 2003, has been characterized by widespread violence, displacement, and humanitarian suffering
  • Despite international condemnation and the issuance of arrest warrants by the International Criminal Court, the response to the crisis has been criticized as slow and inadequate
  • The Darfur case highlights the challenges of mobilizing effective intervention in the face of political obstacles and competing interests

UN role in interventions

Security Council authorization

  • The UN Security Council has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security
  • Security Council authorization is generally considered necessary for the legality of humanitarian interventions under
  • However, the veto power of the five permanent members (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States) can prevent or delay action, even in the face of grave human rights abuses

Peacekeeping operations

  • operations can play a crucial role in protecting civilians and promoting stability in post-conflict situations
  • Peacekeepers may be deployed to monitor ceasefires, facilitate the delivery of , and support the implementation of peace agreements (UNAMID mission in Darfur, which aimed to protect civilians and facilitate humanitarian assistance)
  • However, peacekeeping operations often face challenges such as inadequate resources, limited mandates, and the need for host country consent

Humanitarian assistance

  • The UN and its agencies, such as the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), provide critical humanitarian assistance to populations affected by conflicts and crises
  • This assistance includes food, shelter, healthcare, and protection services for refugees and internally displaced persons
  • Humanitarian aid can help alleviate suffering and support the basic needs of vulnerable populations, but it is not a substitute for addressing the underlying causes of conflicts and human rights abuses

Regional organizations' involvement

African Union

  • The (AU) has taken an increasingly active role in addressing conflicts and crises on the African continent
  • The AU has the authority to intervene in member states in cases of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity, as outlined in its Constitutive Act
  • Examples of AU interventions include the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) and the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID)

European Union

  • The (EU) has engaged in various humanitarian and peacekeeping operations, often in coordination with the UN and other regional organizations
  • EU missions have focused on tasks such as conflict prevention, crisis management, and post-conflict (EUFOR Tchad/RCA mission in Chad and the Central African Republic, which aimed to protect civilians and facilitate humanitarian aid delivery)
  • The EU also provides significant funding for humanitarian assistance and development projects in conflict-affected regions

NATO's role

  • The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance of North American and European countries, has been involved in several humanitarian interventions
  • NATO's intervention in Kosovo in 1999, which occurred without UN Security Council authorization, remains a controversial example of humanitarian intervention
  • NATO has also participated in operations in Afghanistan, Libya, and other conflict zones, with varying degrees of success and criticism

Critiques of intervention

Neo-colonialism accusations

  • Some critics argue that humanitarian interventions can serve as a pretext for powerful countries to pursue their own economic, political, or strategic interests
  • Interventions led by Western powers in developing countries have been accused of perpetuating neo-colonial dynamics and undermining the sovereignty and self-determination of these states
  • The selective application of interventions, with some crises receiving more attention than others, has fueled perceptions of double standards and hypocrisy

Selective application

  • The decision to intervene in some cases while not intervening in others has been a source of criticism and controversy
  • Factors such as media attention, political will, and strategic interests can influence the international community's response to humanitarian crises
  • The inconsistent application of the principles of humanitarian intervention can undermine the credibility and legitimacy of the concept

Inadequate post-intervention planning

  • Critics argue that humanitarian interventions often lack adequate planning and resources for post-conflict reconstruction and stabilization
  • Without sustained support for institution-building, economic development, and reconciliation, countries may relapse into conflict or experience prolonged instability (Afghanistan, where the international community's efforts to build a stable and democratic state have faced significant challenges)
  • The failure to address the root causes of conflicts and to support long-term peacebuilding efforts can limit the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions

Alternatives to military intervention

Diplomacy and mediation

  • Diplomatic efforts, such as negotiations, mediation, and conflict resolution initiatives, can help prevent or resolve conflicts without the use of military force
  • Engaging with all relevant parties, including state actors, opposition groups, and civil society, can facilitate dialogue and compromise
  • Diplomacy can be used to pressure parties to respect human rights, implement peace agreements, and address the underlying causes of conflicts

Economic sanctions

  • Economic sanctions, such as trade embargoes, asset freezes, and travel bans, can be used to pressure states or individuals to change their behavior or policies
  • Targeted sanctions can be directed at specific individuals, groups, or sectors to minimize the impact on the general population
  • However, the effectiveness of sanctions in promoting human rights and preventing atrocities is debated, and they can sometimes have unintended consequences

Humanitarian aid provision

  • Providing humanitarian aid, such as food, water, shelter, and medical care, can help alleviate the suffering of populations affected by conflicts and crises
  • Aid can be delivered through UN agencies, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
  • Ensuring safe and unhindered access for humanitarian workers is crucial for the effective delivery of aid
  • However, humanitarian aid alone cannot address the underlying causes of conflicts and human rights abuses, and it can sometimes be used as a substitute for more substantive action

Future of humanitarian intervention

Reforming international law

  • Efforts to reform international law aim to clarify the criteria for humanitarian intervention and to ensure that interventions are conducted in a manner consistent with international legal principles
  • Proposals include developing guidelines for the use of force in humanitarian crises, strengthening the role of the UN Security Council, and establishing a "responsibility not to veto" in cases of mass atrocities
  • Reforming international law could help to increase the legitimacy and effectiveness of humanitarian interventions

Strengthening preventive measures

  • Placing greater emphasis on conflict prevention and early warning systems can help to identify and address potential crises before they escalate
  • Investing in initiatives that promote human rights, good governance, and inclusive development can help to address the root causes of conflicts
  • Strengthening international cooperation and information-sharing can improve the ability to detect and respond to emerging threats

Enhancing regional cooperation

  • Encouraging greater cooperation and coordination among regional organizations, such as the African Union and the European Union, can improve the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions
  • Regional organizations often have a better understanding of local contexts and can be more responsive to crises in their respective regions
  • Enhancing regional capacity for conflict prevention, peacekeeping, and post-conflict reconstruction can help to reduce the need for external interventions and promote local ownership of peace processes

Key Terms to Review (24)

African Union: The African Union (AU) is a continental organization established in 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to promote unity and cooperation among African nations. It aims to address various issues, including political stability, economic development, and human rights, while also facilitating collaboration on border disputes, geopolitical codes, peacekeeping efforts, and humanitarian interventions across the continent.
Darfur Crisis: The Darfur Crisis refers to a complex humanitarian emergency that began in 2003 in the Darfur region of Sudan, characterized by widespread violence, displacement, and severe human rights abuses. The conflict erupted when rebel groups rose against the Sudanese government, leading to brutal counterinsurgency tactics, including attacks on civilians, which resulted in a massive humanitarian need and drew international attention for potential humanitarian intervention.
European Union: The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states located primarily in Europe, aimed at fostering integration, cooperation, and stability among its members. The EU represents a unique model of regional governance that balances collective decision-making with the respect for national sovereignty, influencing various aspects such as trade, security, and humanitarian efforts.
Human rights: Human rights are the fundamental rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, regardless of nationality, sex, ethnicity, or any other status. These rights are universally applicable and serve as a foundation for dignity, equality, and justice, influencing various political and social structures globally. They often clash with concepts such as territorial sovereignty, and they are pivotal in discussions around international governance and intervention efforts.
Humanitarian aid: Humanitarian aid refers to the assistance provided to alleviate human suffering in response to crises, including natural disasters, conflicts, and other emergencies. This form of aid aims to save lives, reduce suffering, and maintain human dignity during and after crises, often delivered through various organizations and governments. It encompasses not only immediate relief supplies like food, water, and medical assistance but also longer-term support such as rebuilding infrastructure and promoting health care.
International Law: International law refers to a set of rules, agreements, and treaties that are binding between countries. It governs how nations interact with one another and includes various aspects such as trade, diplomacy, and humanitarian issues. One of its vital applications is in the context of humanitarian intervention, where international law seeks to protect human rights and provide a legal framework for states to respond to humanitarian crises.
Just War Theory: Just War Theory is a philosophical framework that outlines the conditions under which war can be justified and the moral principles that should guide the conduct of war. It provides criteria for determining when it is permissible to engage in war (jus ad bellum) and how to conduct war ethically (jus in bello), emphasizing the need for justice, proportionality, and discrimination between combatants and non-combatants. This theory is crucial in evaluating both peacekeeping and humanitarian interventions, as it seeks to ensure that such actions are morally defensible and contribute to a greater good.
Kofi Annan: Kofi Annan was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1997 to 2006. He played a vital role in reforming the UN and promoting peace, development, and human rights, especially through initiatives related to humanitarian intervention and global governance.
Kosovo intervention: The Kosovo intervention refers to the military action undertaken by NATO in 1999 to halt human rights abuses and ethnic cleansing occurring during the Kosovo War. This intervention marked a significant moment in the discourse on humanitarian intervention, as it was one of the first instances where military force was used without the explicit approval of the United Nations Security Council, raising important debates about sovereignty and the responsibility to protect.
Michael Walzer: Michael Walzer is a prominent American political theorist known for his work on just war theory, ethics, and political philosophy. He is particularly recognized for his influential views on humanitarian intervention, where he argues that military intervention can be justified to prevent human rights violations. His ideas have shaped the debates on the moral responsibilities of states in international relations, particularly in contexts where humanitarian crises occur.
Military intervention: Military intervention refers to the act of a country or group of countries deploying armed forces into another state or region to influence its political, social, or economic conditions. This can occur for various reasons, including national security, political instability, or humanitarian crises, and often raises questions about sovereignty and international law.
Moral obligation: Moral obligation refers to the ethical duty individuals or states have to act in a way that is considered right or just, often transcending legal requirements. This concept plays a crucial role in discussions about ethical responsibilities, particularly when it comes to humanitarian efforts and interventions in situations of crisis or human rights violations. It challenges actors to consider not just their legal rights but also their responsibilities towards others in the global community.
Nation-building: Nation-building is the process of constructing or structuring a national identity, often by integrating diverse groups within a state into a cohesive entity with shared values, culture, and political systems. This process can involve creating institutions, fostering national unity, and establishing governance frameworks to promote stability and legitimacy in the eyes of the population. It often occurs in the context of state formation or after conflicts and humanitarian interventions, where a cohesive national identity is crucial for peace and development.
NATO: NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance formed in 1949 for mutual defense against aggression. It consists of 31 member countries from North America and Europe, committed to collective security whereby an attack on one member is considered an attack on all. This principle shapes geopolitical strategies and responses to conflicts around the world, particularly in contexts of humanitarian intervention.
Nato intervention: NATO intervention refers to the military and political actions undertaken by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization to address conflicts, enforce peace, and provide humanitarian aid in various regions around the world. These interventions are typically conducted under the principles of collective defense and often involve multinational forces working together to stabilize conflict zones and protect civilians, linking closely to peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and humanitarian efforts.
Peacekeeping operations: Peacekeeping operations are initiatives undertaken by international organizations, primarily the United Nations, to maintain or restore peace in conflict-affected areas. These operations involve the deployment of personnel, including soldiers and civilians, to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and support the implementation of peace agreements. They serve as a crucial mechanism for international stability and humanitarian intervention.
Red Cross: The Red Cross is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and education in communities affected by conflict and disasters. It operates on the principles of neutrality, impartiality, and independence, making it a vital player in humanitarian intervention during crises and conflicts around the world.
Responsibility to Protect: The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a global political commitment that aims to ensure the protection of populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. It emphasizes that sovereignty is not a privilege but a responsibility, meaning that states have an obligation to protect their citizens. When they fail to do so, the international community has a duty to intervene, which can sometimes challenge traditional notions of sovereignty.
Rwandan Genocide Response: The Rwandan Genocide Response refers to the international and domestic reactions to the mass killings that occurred in Rwanda between April and July 1994, where an estimated 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu were slaughtered. This tragic event highlighted the failures of the global community to intervene effectively during humanitarian crises and led to discussions about the principles and implications of humanitarian intervention in international relations.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty is the authority of a state to govern itself or another state, signifying complete independence and control over its territory and political affairs. This concept is essential for understanding the dynamics of power, territorial integrity, and international relations, as it lays the foundation for border disputes, international treaties, and the legitimacy of political entities.
Stabilization: Stabilization refers to the processes and efforts aimed at restoring peace and order in a region that has experienced conflict, chaos, or humanitarian crises. This concept often encompasses not just the cessation of violence, but also the establishment of a functioning government, social cohesion, and economic recovery. Stabilization plays a crucial role in humanitarian interventions, as it seeks to create an environment where communities can rebuild and thrive after periods of instability.
UN Peacekeeping: UN Peacekeeping refers to the deployment of international personnel by the United Nations to help maintain peace and security in areas experiencing conflict or post-conflict situations. It involves military, police, and civilian components working together to create stability, protect civilians, and assist in the implementation of peace agreements. This process is closely linked to humanitarian intervention, as peacekeeping missions often aim to prevent further violence and promote recovery in war-torn regions.
UN Security Council Authorization: UN Security Council Authorization refers to the approval granted by the United Nations Security Council to take specific actions, often related to maintaining or restoring international peace and security. This authorization is critical in situations requiring intervention, particularly humanitarian efforts, where member states can be given the green light to act in a crisis that may involve military force or other measures to protect civilians and ensure human rights.
United Nations: The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established in 1945 to promote international cooperation, peace, and security among member states. The UN plays a critical role in addressing global challenges, including conflict resolution, humanitarian assistance, and human rights advocacy, making it essential in the management of border and territorial disputes, as well as in efforts for humanitarian intervention.
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