Ethnic nationalism defines national identity through shared ethnicity, language, and traditions. It emphasizes common ancestry and cultural markers as the basis for political community, differing from civic nationalism's focus on shared citizenship and values.
This form of nationalism has shaped political conflicts worldwide. It can drive separatist movements, ethnic conflicts, and human rights abuses. Managing ethnic diversity remains a key challenge for multi-ethnic states seeking stability and democracy.
Ethnic nationalism definition
- Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism wherein the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity, with the belief that nations are divided by ethnicity
- Emphasizes shared genealogy, language, religion and traditions as the basis for national identity and political community
- Differs from civic nationalism which defines the nation based on shared citizenship, values and institutions regardless of ethnicity
Nationalism vs ethnic nationalism
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- Nationalism is a broader concept referring to the ideology that the nation should be the basis of political identity and state organization
- Ethnic nationalism is a specific form of nationalism that uses ethnicity as the primary basis for defining national identity and belonging
- Civic nationalism focuses on shared political values and citizenship while ethnic nationalism focuses on common ethnic ancestry and cultural markers
Ethnic identity markers
- Language is often a key marker of ethnic identity, with ethnic groups defined by their mother tongue (Catalan, Kurdish)
- Religion can serve as an ethnic boundary marker distinguishing an ethnic group from others (Croats/Serbs, Sunni/Shia Arabs)
- Shared traditions, customs and cultural practices passed down over generations help define ethnic groups
- Belief in common ancestry and genealogical descent ties the ethnic group together as an extended kinship community
- Attachment to a particular territory or homeland is another common attribute of ethnic identity
Ethnic nationalism origins
- The roots of ethnic nationalism can be traced to 19th century romantic nationalism in Europe which glorified ethnic identity and culture
- Ethnic nationalism emerged as a powerful political force in the 20th century with the decline of multi-ethnic empires and rise of the nation-state ideal
- Scholars have proposed several theoretical perspectives to explain the origins and persistence of ethnic nationalism in different contexts
Primordialism perspective
- Primordialism sees ethnic identities as fixed, natural and ancient, based on deep cultural and psychological attachments
- Assumes that people have an innate emotional bond to their ethnic group, often linked to kinship ties and shared genetic ancestry
- Views ethnic conflicts as inevitable clashes between fundamentally different and incompatible ethnic groups
- Has been criticized for essentializing ethnic identities and overlooking their social and historical construction
Constructivism perspective
- Constructivism emphasizes the socially constructed nature of ethnic identities, which are created through social and political processes
- Ethnic groups are "imagined communities" that emerge in specific historical and institutional contexts, not primordial givens
- Ethnic boundaries and markers are fluid and shifting, subject to negotiation, contestation and redefinition over time
- Highlights the role of ethnic entrepreneurs and political leaders in mobilizing ethnic identities for political purposes
Instrumentalism perspective
- Instrumentalism views ethnic identity as a strategic tool used by individuals and groups to gain political or economic advantages
- Ethnic nationalism is seen as a rational pursuit of collective interests, not just an emotional attachment to one's ethnic group
- Ethnic elites manipulate cultural symbols and grievances to mobilize mass support and compete for power and resources
- Instrumentalist accounts have been used to explain ethnic conflict in terms of underlying material and political factors
Ethnic nationalism goals
- Ethnic nationalist movements are driven by a range of political objectives related to enhancing the status and power of the ethnic nation
- Goals can range from greater cultural rights and autonomy within an existing state to demands for independent statehood
- The specific goals pursued depend on factors like the group's size, territorial concentration, political opportunity structures, and ideological orientation
Ethnic self-determination
- Self-determination refers to an ethnic group's right to freely determine its political status and pursue its economic, social and cultural development
- Ethnic nationalists often demand political autonomy, self-government or independent statehood as expressions of their right to self-determination
- Self-determination claims are based on the idea that ethnic groups are distinct "peoples" entitled to control their own political destiny
- In practice, the exercise of self-determination has often clashed with existing state sovereignty norms and led to secessionist conflicts
Ethnic separatism
- Separatism involves an ethnic group seeking to withdraw from an existing state to establish its own independent state
- Separatist movements challenge the territorial integrity of multi-ethnic states and assert the right to national self-determination
- Ethnic separatism has been a major source of intrastate conflicts, civil wars and new state formation in the post-Cold War era (Yugoslavia, Soviet Union)
- Factors driving separatism include ethnic grievances, political exclusion, regional inequalities and discriminatory state policies
Irredentism and pan-nationalism
- Irredentism refers to an ethnic group seeking to unite its members across existing state boundaries into a single ethnic homeland
- Involves claims over territories inhabited by co-ethnics that are currently part of other states (e.g. Serb claims over Bosnia, Nagorno-Karabakh)
- Pan-nationalism extends the irredentist vision to unite a broader ethnic or cultural community into a larger political entity (Pan-Arabism, Pan-Turkism)
- These maximalist goals of ethnic reunification and aggrandizement are highly revisionist and destabilizing to the international state system
Ethnic nationalism consequences
- The politicization of ethnicity and rise of ethnic nationalism have had far-reaching consequences for peace, stability and human rights
- In the extreme, ethnic nationalism has fueled some of the worst atrocities and human rights abuses of the modern era
- Even in less violent contexts, ethnic nationalism can strain the social fabric of multi-ethnic societies and democratic institutions
Ethnic conflict drivers
- Competing ethnic claims over territory, political power and economic resources are major drivers of ethnic conflicts
- Ethnic exclusion and discrimination by dominant groups can fuel grievances and separatist sentiments among marginalized minorities
- Ethnic myths, fears and dehumanizing narratives can be mobilized to justify violence against other ethnic groups seen as threats
- Weak states lacking the institutional capacity to manage ethnic diversity peacefully are more vulnerable to ethnic conflicts
Ethnic cleansing and genocide
- Ethnic cleansing refers to the systematic forced removal of an ethnic group from a territory through intimidation, violence and terror
- Genocide is the intentional action to destroy an ethnic group in whole or in part, as seen in the Holocaust, Cambodia, Rwanda, and Bosnia
- Ethnic nationalism taken to extremes can view ethnic co-existence as impossible, justifying mass expulsions or extermination as "solutions"
- International law has sought to prevent and punish ethnic cleansing and genocide as the most egregious violations of human rights
Ethnocratic regimes
- Ethnocracies are political systems where a dominant ethnic group controls the state apparatus to the exclusion of other groups
- Ethnocratic regimes privilege the dominant ethnic group through discriminatory laws, institutions and resource distribution (Israel, Malaysia, Latvia)
- Ethnic minorities face systemic barriers to political participation, economic opportunities and cultural expression
- Ethnocratic rule can be formally enshrined in law or take place through informal practices, political norms and social customs
Ethnic nationalism case studies
- Ethnic nationalism has shaped the political trajectories of numerous countries and regions around the world
- Case studies of ethnic nationalism in action illustrate its diverse manifestations, drivers and impacts in different contexts
- Examining specific cases helps identify patterns and variations in how ethnic nationalism emerges and evolves over time
Balkans and Yugoslavia breakup
- The Balkans have long been a hotbed of ethnic nationalism, with the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires leaving a mosaic of ethnic groups
- Socialist Yugoslavia suppressed ethnic nationalism under Tito but it resurfaced with a vengeance after his death and the end of the Cold War
- Yugoslav republics like Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia declared independence, leading to ethnic cleansing and wars as Serbia sought to create a "Greater Serbia"
- The wars of Yugoslav succession in the 1990s saw some of the worst atrocities in Europe since WWII, including the Srebrenica genocide
Kurds in Middle East
- Kurds are a stateless ethnic group numbering over 30 million spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria
- Kurdish nationalism emerged in the early 20th century seeking an independent state of Kurdistan, which was promised but never realized after WWI
- Kurds have faced forced assimilation, cultural repression and even genocide (Anfal campaign) from the states ruling over them
- In Iraq and Syria, Kurds have taken advantage of conflicts to establish de facto autonomous regions, but still face challenges to their nationalist aspirations
Uyghurs in China
- Uyghurs are a Turkic-speaking Muslim ethnic group native to Xinjiang in western China, which they refer to as East Turkestan
- Uyghur ethnic nationalism has sought greater autonomy or secession from China, which has responded with increasingly repressive policies
- China has framed Uyghur nationalism as a terrorist threat and used this to justify mass surveillance, arbitrary detention and cultural assimilation efforts
- Human rights groups accuse China of carrying out cultural genocide against the Uyghurs through forced labor, sterilization and "re-education" camps
Ethnic nationalism management
- Managing ethnic diversity and nationalism is a major challenge for multi-ethnic states seeking to maintain stability and democracy
- Various political and institutional arrangements have been used to accommodate ethnic differences and prevent ethnic conflicts from escalating
- No one-size-fits-all solution exists, as the effectiveness of different approaches depends on the specific context and nature of ethnic divisions
Consociationalism and power-sharing
- Consociationalism is a power-sharing model that guarantees ethnic groups a stake in political decision-making through reserved seats, proportional representation, and minority vetoes
- Aims to foster inter-ethnic cooperation and compromise through elite bargaining and consensus-building (Switzerland, Belgium, Lebanon)
- Critics argue consociationalism can entrench ethnic divisions and lead to political paralysis if groups abuse their veto powers
- Centripetalism is an alternative model that seeks to encourage cross-ethnic voting and moderate politics through electoral incentives
Federalism and regional autonomy
- Federalism devolves power to regional units, allowing ethnic groups concentrated in certain areas to have self-government over matters like education, language and culture
- Ethnofederalism goes further by drawing internal borders along ethnic lines and giving ethnic regions special autonomous status (Russia, Ethiopia, Bosnia)
- Regional autonomy can help satisfy ethnic demands for self-determination short of full independence, but may also embolden separatist movements
- Federalism works best when ethnic and administrative boundaries don't overlap neatly, encouraging inter-regional cooperation and shared rule
Minority rights protections
- Liberal democracies have sought to protect the rights of ethnic minorities through anti-discrimination laws, affirmative action policies and cultural rights provisions
- International law and organizations like the UN and Council of Europe have developed minority rights standards and monitoring mechanisms
- Minority language rights, religious freedoms and political representation are key issues in protecting the distinct identities of ethnic groups
- Minority rights aim to ensure equality and non-discrimination while preserving cultural diversity, but may face backlash from majority nationalist movements
Ethnic nationalism future
- Ethnic nationalism remains a powerful force in the 21st century, shaping political conflicts and identities around the world
- Several global trends and developments are likely to influence the future trajectory of ethnic nationalism in the coming decades
- The international community will continue to grapple with how to balance the competing imperatives of self-determination, state sovereignty and human rights
Globalization impacts
- Economic globalization and cultural flows may weaken traditional ethnic boundaries and foster more cosmopolitan or hybrid identities
- But globalization can also provoke ethnic backlash and nostalgia for authenticity, as seen in the rise of populist nationalism in the West
- Migration and demographic shifts may increase ethnic diversity within states, straining existing political and social arrangements
- Climate change and resource scarcity could intensify ethnic competition and conflicts in some regions, as groups seek to secure diminishing resources
Supranational identities
- The growth of supranational institutions and identities like the European Union may offer an alternative to narrow ethnic nationalism
- EU integration has sought to transcend ethnic divisions by forging a common European identity based on shared values and interests
- But the EU faces its own challenges of democratic legitimacy and cultural diversity, as seen in the rise of Euroskepticism and Brexit
- Other regional projects like the African Union and ASEAN have also sought to promote cooperation and shared identities across ethnic lines
Civic nationalism alternative
- Civic nationalism presents itself as a more inclusive and liberal alternative to ethnic nationalism, basing national identity on shared citizenship rather than ancestry
- Civic nationalists argue that diverse societies can still build a strong sense of national unity around common political values, institutions and responsibilities
- However, the line between civic and ethnic nationalism is often blurred in practice, as even ostensibly civic nations have dominant ethnic cores
- The challenge for civic nationalism is to create a sense of belonging and solidarity that is meaningful enough to compete with the emotional appeal of ethnic ties