7.1 Ethnic nationalism
9 min read•august 20, 2024
defines through shared ethnicity, language, and traditions. It emphasizes common ancestry and cultural markers as the basis for political community, differing from 's focus on shared citizenship and values.
This form of nationalism has shaped political conflicts worldwide. It can drive separatist movements, ethnic conflicts, and human rights abuses. Managing ethnic diversity remains a key challenge for multi-ethnic states seeking stability and democracy.
Ethnic nationalism definition
- Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism wherein the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity, with the belief that nations are divided by ethnicity
- Emphasizes shared genealogy, language, religion and traditions as the basis for national identity and political community
- Differs from civic nationalism which defines the nation based on shared citizenship, values and institutions regardless of ethnicity
Nationalism vs ethnic nationalism
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- Nationalism is a broader concept referring to the ideology that the nation should be the basis of political identity and state organization
- Ethnic nationalism is a specific form of nationalism that uses ethnicity as the primary basis for defining national identity and belonging
- Civic nationalism focuses on shared political values and citizenship while ethnic nationalism focuses on common ethnic ancestry and cultural markers
Ethnic identity markers
- Language is often a key marker of ethnic identity, with ethnic groups defined by their mother tongue (Catalan, Kurdish)
- Religion can serve as an ethnic boundary marker distinguishing an ethnic group from others (Croats/Serbs, Sunni/Shia Arabs)
- Shared traditions, customs and cultural practices passed down over generations help define ethnic groups
- Belief in common ancestry and genealogical descent ties the ethnic group together as an extended kinship community
- Attachment to a particular territory or homeland is another common attribute of ethnic identity
Ethnic nationalism origins
- The roots of ethnic nationalism can be traced to 19th century romantic nationalism in Europe which glorified ethnic identity and culture
- Ethnic nationalism emerged as a powerful political force in the 20th century with the decline of multi-ethnic empires and rise of the nation-state ideal
- Scholars have proposed several theoretical perspectives to explain the origins and persistence of ethnic nationalism in different contexts
Primordialism perspective
- sees ethnic identities as fixed, natural and ancient, based on deep cultural and psychological attachments
- Assumes that people have an innate emotional bond to their ethnic group, often linked to kinship ties and shared genetic ancestry
- Views ethnic conflicts as inevitable clashes between fundamentally different and incompatible ethnic groups
- Has been criticized for essentializing ethnic identities and overlooking their social and historical construction
Constructivism perspective
- Constructivism emphasizes the socially constructed nature of ethnic identities, which are created through social and political processes
- Ethnic groups are "imagined communities" that emerge in specific historical and institutional contexts, not primordial givens
- Ethnic boundaries and markers are fluid and shifting, subject to negotiation, contestation and redefinition over time
- Highlights the role of ethnic entrepreneurs and political leaders in mobilizing ethnic identities for political purposes
Instrumentalism perspective
- views ethnic identity as a strategic tool used by individuals and groups to gain political or economic advantages
- Ethnic nationalism is seen as a rational pursuit of collective interests, not just an emotional attachment to one's ethnic group
- Ethnic elites manipulate cultural symbols and grievances to mobilize mass support and compete for power and resources
- Instrumentalist accounts have been used to explain in terms of underlying material and political factors
Ethnic nationalism goals
- Ethnic nationalist movements are driven by a range of political objectives related to enhancing the status and power of the ethnic nation
- Goals can range from greater cultural rights and autonomy within an existing state to demands for independent statehood
- The specific goals pursued depend on factors like the group's size, territorial concentration, political opportunity structures, and ideological orientation
Ethnic self-determination
- refers to an ethnic group's right to freely determine its political status and pursue its economic, social and cultural development
- Ethnic nationalists often demand political autonomy, self-government or independent statehood as expressions of their right to self-determination
- Self-determination claims are based on the idea that ethnic groups are distinct "peoples" entitled to control their own political destiny
- In practice, the exercise of self-determination has often clashed with existing state sovereignty norms and led to secessionist conflicts
Ethnic separatism
- Separatism involves an ethnic group seeking to withdraw from an existing state to establish its own independent state
- Separatist movements challenge the territorial integrity of multi-ethnic states and assert the right to national self-determination
- has been a major source of intrastate conflicts, civil wars and new state formation in the post-Cold War era (Yugoslavia, Soviet Union)
- Factors driving separatism include ethnic grievances, political exclusion, regional inequalities and discriminatory state policies
Irredentism and pan-nationalism
- Irredentism refers to an ethnic group seeking to unite its members across existing state boundaries into a single ethnic homeland
- Involves claims over territories inhabited by co-ethnics that are currently part of other states (e.g. Serb claims over Bosnia, Nagorno-Karabakh)
- Pan-nationalism extends the irredentist vision to unite a broader ethnic or cultural community into a larger political entity (Pan-Arabism, Pan-Turkism)
- These maximalist goals of ethnic reunification and aggrandizement are highly revisionist and destabilizing to the international state system
Ethnic nationalism consequences
- The politicization of ethnicity and rise of ethnic nationalism have had far-reaching consequences for peace, stability and human rights
- In the extreme, ethnic nationalism has fueled some of the worst atrocities and human rights abuses of the modern era
- Even in less violent contexts, ethnic nationalism can strain the social fabric of multi-ethnic societies and democratic institutions
Ethnic conflict drivers
- Competing ethnic claims over territory, political power and economic resources are major drivers of ethnic conflicts
- Ethnic exclusion and discrimination by dominant groups can fuel grievances and separatist sentiments among marginalized minorities
- Ethnic myths, fears and dehumanizing narratives can be mobilized to justify violence against other ethnic groups seen as threats
- Weak states lacking the institutional capacity to manage ethnic diversity peacefully are more vulnerable to ethnic conflicts
Ethnic cleansing and genocide
- refers to the systematic forced removal of an ethnic group from a territory through intimidation, violence and terror
- is the intentional action to destroy an ethnic group in whole or in part, as seen in the Holocaust, Cambodia, Rwanda, and Bosnia
- Ethnic nationalism taken to extremes can view ethnic co-existence as impossible, justifying mass expulsions or extermination as "solutions"
- International law has sought to prevent and punish ethnic cleansing and genocide as the most egregious violations of human rights
Ethnocratic regimes
- Ethnocracies are political systems where a dominant ethnic group controls the state apparatus to the exclusion of other groups
- privilege the dominant ethnic group through discriminatory laws, institutions and resource distribution (Israel, Malaysia, Latvia)
- Ethnic minorities face systemic barriers to political participation, economic opportunities and cultural expression
- Ethnocratic rule can be formally enshrined in law or take place through informal practices, political norms and social customs
Ethnic nationalism case studies
- Ethnic nationalism has shaped the political trajectories of numerous countries and regions around the world
- Case studies of ethnic nationalism in action illustrate its diverse manifestations, drivers and impacts in different contexts
- Examining specific cases helps identify patterns and variations in how ethnic nationalism emerges and evolves over time
Balkans and Yugoslavia breakup
- The Balkans have long been a hotbed of ethnic nationalism, with the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires leaving a mosaic of ethnic groups
- Socialist Yugoslavia suppressed ethnic nationalism under Tito but it resurfaced with a vengeance after his death and the end of the Cold War
- Yugoslav republics like Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia declared independence, leading to ethnic cleansing and wars as Serbia sought to create a "Greater Serbia"
- The wars of Yugoslav succession in the 1990s saw some of the worst atrocities in Europe since WWII, including the Srebrenica genocide
Kurds in Middle East
- Kurds are a stateless ethnic group numbering over 30 million spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria
- emerged in the early 20th century seeking an independent state of Kurdistan, which was promised but never realized after WWI
- Kurds have faced forced assimilation, cultural repression and even genocide (Anfal campaign) from the states ruling over them
- In Iraq and Syria, Kurds have taken advantage of conflicts to establish de facto autonomous regions, but still face challenges to their nationalist aspirations
Uyghurs in China
- Uyghurs are a Turkic-speaking Muslim ethnic group native to Xinjiang in western China, which they refer to as East Turkestan
- Uyghur ethnic nationalism has sought greater autonomy or secession from China, which has responded with increasingly repressive policies
- China has framed Uyghur nationalism as a terrorist threat and used this to justify mass surveillance, arbitrary detention and cultural assimilation efforts
- Human rights groups accuse China of carrying out cultural genocide against the Uyghurs through forced labor, sterilization and "re-education" camps
Ethnic nationalism management
- Managing ethnic diversity and nationalism is a major challenge for multi-ethnic states seeking to maintain stability and democracy
- Various political and institutional arrangements have been used to accommodate ethnic differences and prevent ethnic conflicts from escalating
- No one-size-fits-all solution exists, as the effectiveness of different approaches depends on the specific context and nature of ethnic divisions
Consociationalism and power-sharing
- is a model that guarantees ethnic groups a stake in political decision-making through reserved seats, proportional representation, and minority vetoes
- Aims to foster inter-ethnic cooperation and compromise through elite bargaining and consensus-building (Switzerland, Belgium, Lebanon)
- Critics argue consociationalism can entrench ethnic divisions and lead to political paralysis if groups abuse their veto powers
- Centripetalism is an alternative model that seeks to encourage cross-ethnic voting and moderate politics through electoral incentives
Federalism and regional autonomy
- devolves power to regional units, allowing ethnic groups concentrated in certain areas to have self-government over matters like education, language and culture
- Ethnofederalism goes further by drawing internal borders along ethnic lines and giving ethnic regions special autonomous status (Russia, Ethiopia, Bosnia)
- can help satisfy ethnic demands for self-determination short of full independence, but may also embolden separatist movements
- Federalism works best when ethnic and administrative boundaries don't overlap neatly, encouraging inter-regional cooperation and shared rule
Minority rights protections
- Liberal democracies have sought to protect the rights of ethnic minorities through anti-discrimination laws, affirmative action policies and cultural rights provisions
- International law and organizations like the UN and Council of Europe have developed minority rights standards and monitoring mechanisms
- Minority language rights, religious freedoms and political representation are key issues in protecting the distinct identities of ethnic groups
- Minority rights aim to ensure equality and non-discrimination while preserving cultural diversity, but may face backlash from majority nationalist movements
Ethnic nationalism future
- Ethnic nationalism remains a powerful force in the 21st century, shaping political conflicts and identities around the world
- Several global trends and developments are likely to influence the future trajectory of ethnic nationalism in the coming decades
- The international community will continue to grapple with how to balance the competing imperatives of self-determination, state sovereignty and human rights
Globalization impacts
- Economic globalization and cultural flows may weaken traditional ethnic boundaries and foster more cosmopolitan or hybrid identities
- But globalization can also provoke ethnic backlash and nostalgia for authenticity, as seen in the rise of populist nationalism in the West
- Migration and demographic shifts may increase ethnic diversity within states, straining existing political and social arrangements
- Climate change and resource scarcity could intensify ethnic competition and conflicts in some regions, as groups seek to secure diminishing resources
Supranational identities
- The growth of supranational institutions and identities like the European Union may offer an alternative to narrow ethnic nationalism
- EU integration has sought to transcend ethnic divisions by forging a common European identity based on shared values and interests
- But the EU faces its own challenges of democratic legitimacy and cultural diversity, as seen in the rise of Euroskepticism and Brexit
- Other regional projects like the African Union and ASEAN have also sought to promote cooperation and shared identities across ethnic lines
Civic nationalism alternative
- Civic nationalism presents itself as a more inclusive and liberal alternative to ethnic nationalism, basing national identity on shared citizenship rather than ancestry
- Civic nationalists argue that diverse societies can still build a strong sense of national unity around common political values, institutions and responsibilities
- However, the line between civic and ethnic nationalism is often blurred in practice, as even ostensibly civic nations have dominant ethnic cores
- The challenge for civic nationalism is to create a sense of belonging and solidarity that is meaningful enough to compete with the emotional appeal of ethnic ties
Key Terms to Review (24)
Anderson: Anderson refers to Benedict Anderson, a political scientist known for his influential concept of 'imagined communities.' This idea is crucial for understanding ethnic nationalism, as it explains how individuals perceive themselves as part of a larger national group, even if they do not know most of its members personally. His work emphasizes the role of cultural symbols, media, and historical narratives in shaping national identities and the sense of belonging that fuels ethnic nationalism.
Balkan Nationalism: Balkan nationalism refers to the political and cultural movements that emerged in the Balkan Peninsula during the 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasizing the interests and identity of various ethnic groups in the region. This form of nationalism was fueled by a desire for self-determination and independence from larger empires, such as the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, and often led to conflict as different groups sought to assert their national identity and territorial claims.
Catalan independence referendum: The Catalan independence referendum refers to a vote held in Catalonia on October 1, 2017, where citizens were asked whether they wanted to declare independence from Spain. This event was a significant manifestation of ethnic nationalism, as it highlighted the desire of many Catalans to establish their own nation-state based on distinct cultural, linguistic, and historical identities separate from Spain.
Civic nationalism: Civic nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes shared citizenship, legal equality, and political rights over ethnic, cultural, or historical ties. It seeks to create a sense of belonging among individuals based on their commitment to the political community and adherence to its values, rather than on common ancestry or heritage. This approach promotes inclusivity and often supports the idea of a diverse society unified under a common framework of laws and civic principles.
Consociationalism: Consociationalism is a political system designed to manage and accommodate deep societal divisions, particularly in multi-ethnic or multi-religious states. It seeks to promote stability and peace by encouraging power-sharing among different groups, ensuring that minority interests are represented and respected in governance. This approach can help prevent conflict by fostering cooperation and consensus among diverse factions within a society.
Ethnic cleansing: Ethnic cleansing refers to the systematic removal or extermination of an ethnic or religious group from a specific territory, often through violent means. This practice is typically motivated by a desire to establish a homogenous national identity, driven by ethnic nationalism and the belief that certain groups should dominate others in a given space.
Ethnic conflict: Ethnic conflict refers to disputes and hostilities between different ethnic groups, often stemming from issues such as identity, resources, and political power. These conflicts can arise when one group perceives a threat to its cultural or social identity from another group, leading to violence or discrimination. Factors such as historical grievances, territorial disputes, and socioeconomic inequalities often exacerbate these tensions.
Ethnic nationalism: Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism where the primary basis for nationhood is defined by shared ethnicity, culture, language, or heritage rather than civic or political factors. This type of nationalism often emphasizes the importance of a common ethnic identity, leading to movements that advocate for the rights and recognition of specific ethnic groups within a larger political context.
Ethnic separatism: Ethnic separatism refers to the political and social movements by specific ethnic groups aiming to gain independence or greater autonomy from a dominant state or government. This phenomenon often arises from perceived discrimination, cultural differences, or historical grievances, leading these groups to seek self-determination or the establishment of their own sovereign entities. Ethnic separatism is closely linked to broader concepts such as separatism and irredentism, where ethnic identities play a crucial role in territorial claims and national identity.
Ethnocratic regimes: Ethnocratic regimes are political systems where the state is primarily defined by the ethnic identity of a particular group, often leading to the marginalization or exclusion of other ethnic communities. In these regimes, laws, policies, and practices tend to favor the dominant ethnic group, fostering a sense of belonging and privilege for that group while undermining the rights and representation of minority populations. This often results in tensions and conflicts between different ethnic groups within the state.
Ethnonationalist movements: Ethnonationalist movements are social and political movements that emphasize the interests and identity of a particular ethnic group, often seeking to establish or maintain a nation-state that reflects that group's unique cultural, historical, and linguistic characteristics. These movements can lead to demands for greater autonomy, independence, or even conflict with other groups, as they often arise in contexts of perceived marginalization or oppression of the ethnic group in question.
Federalism: Federalism is a political system in which power is divided between a central authority and various regional entities, allowing both levels of government to exercise authority over the same geographic area. This division of power helps to accommodate diverse populations and promotes regional autonomy while maintaining national unity. It is particularly relevant in the context of managing multinational states, addressing issues of devolution, responding to ethnic nationalism, and navigating local governance like sanctuary cities.
Genocide: Genocide is the intentional act to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. This term encompasses a range of violent actions, including killing members of the group, causing serious bodily or mental harm, and deliberately inflicting living conditions aimed at the group's physical destruction. The concept of genocide is closely linked to issues of ethnic nationalism, as such nationalistic fervor can lead to the exclusion and dehumanization of targeted groups, often resulting in horrific violence and mass atrocities.
Instrumentalism: Instrumentalism is a theoretical perspective that views ethnic identities as tools or instruments for achieving political, economic, or social goals, rather than as fixed and inherent characteristics. This approach emphasizes the strategic use of ethnic identity by individuals and groups to navigate power dynamics and mobilize support, highlighting the flexibility and situational nature of these identities in the context of ethnic nationalism.
Kurdish nationalism: Kurdish nationalism is a political and cultural movement advocating for the rights, identity, and autonomy of the Kurdish people, who are an ethnic group primarily located in regions spanning Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. This form of nationalism emphasizes the distinct language, culture, and historical experiences of the Kurds, often seeking greater political representation or independence from the states in which they reside.
Minority rights protections: Minority rights protections refer to the legal and social measures that are put in place to safeguard the rights and interests of minority groups within a society, ensuring that they have equal access to political representation, cultural recognition, and economic opportunities. These protections are crucial in addressing historical injustices and preventing discrimination, particularly in the context of ethnic nationalism where dominant groups may seek to marginalize others.
National Identity: National identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a nation and the characteristics that define that nation, including shared culture, language, history, and values. It shapes how individuals perceive themselves in relation to their country and influences their loyalty and commitment to it. This concept is crucial for understanding various geopolitical issues, including the formation of states, conflicts driven by ethnic nationalism, and the critical evaluation of power dynamics in global politics.
Power-sharing: Power-sharing is a political arrangement that involves the distribution of political power among different groups, often to ensure representation and prevent conflict. This concept is particularly relevant in multi-ethnic or multi-national societies where various groups seek to assert their interests and rights, fostering cooperation rather than competition. By institutionalizing mechanisms for collaboration among diverse factions, power-sharing aims to create stability and promote peace in politically divided societies.
Primordialism: Primordialism is a theoretical perspective in political geography that emphasizes the inherent, deep-rooted connections individuals have to their ethnic groups, often viewing these ties as unchanging and fundamental. This viewpoint suggests that ethnicity is a primary lens through which people perceive their identity and political interests, positioning ethnic nationalism as a key motivator in political movements and conflicts.
Regional Autonomy: Regional autonomy refers to the degree of self-governance granted to a specific region or locality within a larger political entity, allowing it to exercise control over certain policies and decisions. This concept is important in understanding how regions manage their own affairs, especially in contexts where demands for independence or greater representation arise. Regional autonomy can significantly impact the political landscape, often intersecting with issues of nationalism, territorial disputes, and governance structures.
Rwanda Genocide: The Rwanda Genocide refers to the mass slaughter of the Tutsi ethnic group by the Hutu majority government in Rwanda during a period of approximately 100 days in 1994. This tragic event was driven by long-standing ethnic tensions and a surge of ethnic nationalism, leading to the deaths of an estimated 800,000 people, predominantly Tutsis and moderate Hutus, and marking a dark chapter in modern history.
Secessionist movements: Secessionist movements are efforts by a group within a state to break away and form an independent state or to join another country. These movements often stem from a sense of ethnic nationalism, where a distinct ethnic group seeks self-determination and recognition of their identity, leading to conflicts over territory, governance, and cultural autonomy.
Self-Determination: Self-determination is the principle that allows peoples and nations to determine their own political status and pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development. This idea is deeply connected to concepts of sovereignty and national identity, making it a fundamental aspect of discussions around territorial integrity, border conflicts, and the rights of various groups to govern themselves.
Smith: Smith, in the context of ethnic nationalism, often refers to the idea of an ethno-cultural identity tied to specific groups within a nation-state. This concept highlights how cultural heritage, language, and shared history can create a sense of belonging among individuals from similar backgrounds. Understanding the role of figures like Smith helps illuminate the complexities of national identity and how it intersects with issues of ethnicity, citizenship, and political power.