Cognitive Biases to Know for AP Psychology

Cognitive biases shape how we think and make decisions, often leading us to flawed conclusions. Understanding these biases is crucial in psychology, as they impact our beliefs, judgments, and interactions in everyday life, including in religion and critical thinking.

1. Confirmation bias

   • Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.
   • Can lead to distorted thinking and reinforce misconceptions.
   • Often results in ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence.

2. Availability heuristic

   • Mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.
   • Influences decision-making based on how easily something can be recalled.
   • Can lead to overestimating the likelihood of events based on recent exposure or vividness.

3. Anchoring bias

   • The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the "anchor") when making decisions.
   • Can skew judgment and lead to poor decision-making.
   • Often affects numerical estimates and evaluations.

4. Fundamental attribution error

   • The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviors.
   • Can lead to misjudgments about people's motivations and actions.
   • Highlights the difference in how we perceive our own actions versus those of others.

5. Hindsight bias

   • The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.
   • Can lead to overconfidence in one’s ability to predict outcomes.
   • Often results in a distorted view of past events and decisions.

6. Overconfidence bias

   • The tendency to overestimate one’s own abilities, knowledge, or predictions.
   • Can lead to risky decision-making and poor judgment.
   • Often results in underestimating challenges or overestimating control over outcomes.

7. Negativity bias

   • The tendency to give more weight to negative experiences or information than positive ones.
   • Can affect emotional responses and decision-making processes.
   • Often leads to a pessimistic outlook and increased anxiety.

8. Bandwagon effect

   • The phenomenon where individuals adopt beliefs or behaviors because others are doing so.
   • Can lead to conformity and groupthink.
   • Often results in a lack of critical thinking and independent decision-making.

9. Self-serving bias

   • The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to one’s own actions and negative outcomes to external factors.
   • Can distort self-perception and hinder personal growth.
   • Often leads to a lack of accountability and responsibility.

10. Dunning-Kruger effect

    • A cognitive bias where individuals with low ability at a task overestimate their ability.
    • Often results in a lack of awareness of one’s own incompetence.
    • Can lead to poor decision-making and inflated self-assessment.

11. Framing effect

    • The way information is presented can significantly affect decision-making and judgment.
    • Can lead to different conclusions based on how the same information is framed.
    • Often used in marketing and media to influence perceptions.

12. Sunk cost fallacy

    • The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made, regardless of future outcomes.
    • Can lead to irrational decision-making and persistence in failing projects.
    • Often results in a reluctance to cut losses and move on.

13. Cognitive dissonance

    • The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs or values.
    • Can lead to changes in beliefs or behaviors to reduce discomfort.
    • Often results in rationalization or justification of actions.

14. Halo effect

    • The tendency to let an overall impression of a person influence specific judgments about their traits or abilities.
    • Can lead to biased evaluations in various contexts, such as hiring or grading.
    • Often results in overlooking flaws or negative attributes.

15. Representativeness heuristic

    • A mental shortcut that involves judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype.
    • Can lead to misjudgments and stereotyping.
    • Often results in neglecting relevant statistical information.