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Intro to Native American Studies
Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Native American Societies Before Columbus
2.1 Major cultural regions and civilizations
2.2 Social structures and political organizations
2.3 Economic systems and trade networks
2.4 Spiritual beliefs and practices

Native American societies before Columbus were diverse and complex. From the Aztecs and Maya in Mesoamerica to the Inca in South America, these civilizations built impressive cities, developed advanced technologies, and created sophisticated cultures.

In North America, distinct cultural regions emerged. The Southwest, Eastern Woodlands, Great Plains, Pacific Northwest, and Arctic each had unique ways of life. Major cultures like the Mississippian and Ancestral Puebloans left lasting impacts on the landscape and future societies.

Mesoamerica and South America

Aztec Empire and Maya Civilization

  • Aztec Empire flourished in central Mexico from 14th to 16th centuries
    • Capital city Tenochtitlan built on artificial islands in Lake Texcoco
    • Complex social hierarchy led by emperor (tlatoani)
    • Practiced human sacrifice as part of religious rituals
    • Developed sophisticated agricultural techniques (chinampas)
  • Maya Civilization thrived in Yucatan Peninsula and Central America from 2000 BCE to 1500 CE
    • Known for advanced writing system (hieroglyphics)
    • Excelled in mathematics and astronomy
    • Built impressive pyramids and temple complexes (Chichen Itza, Tikal)
    • Developed accurate calendar system based on astronomical observations

Inca Empire and Mesoamerican Characteristics

  • Inca Empire dominated western South America from 13th to 16th centuries
    • Largest pre-Columbian empire in Americas
    • Capital city Cusco served as administrative and religious center
    • Built extensive road network (Qhapaq Ñan) spanning over 39,000 kilometers
    • Developed terrace farming techniques to cultivate steep Andean slopes
  • Mesoamerica encompasses region from central Mexico to Central America
    • Shared cultural traits include polytheistic religion
    • Developed sophisticated calendars and writing systems
    • Practiced ball game with ritual significance
    • Cultivated staple crops (maize, beans, squash)

North American Regions

Southwest and Eastern Woodlands

  • North American Southwest includes present-day Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of surrounding states
    • Characterized by arid climate and diverse landscapes
    • Home to Ancestral Puebloan cultures (Anasazi, Mogollon, Hohokam)
    • Developed adobe architecture and intricate pottery designs
    • Practiced dry farming techniques and irrigation systems
  • Eastern Woodlands extended from Atlantic coast to Mississippi River
    • Divided into Northeast and Southeast cultural areas
    • Northeast known for Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking peoples
    • Southeast home to Muskogean-speaking groups (Creek, Choctaw)
    • Developed agriculture based on "Three Sisters" (corn, beans, squash)
    • Practiced mound-building traditions (Adena, Hopewell, Mississippian)

Great Plains, Pacific Northwest, and Arctic

  • Great Plains stretched from Mississippi River to Rocky Mountains
    • Home to nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes (Lakota, Cheyenne, Comanche)
    • Economy centered around bison hunting and horse culture
    • Developed portable housing (tipis) suited for mobile lifestyle
    • Practiced sun dance and vision quest rituals
  • Pacific Northwest encompassed coastal regions from northern California to Alaska
    • Known for abundant natural resources (salmon, cedar trees)
    • Developed complex social hierarchies and potlatch ceremonies
    • Created distinctive art forms (totem poles, wooden masks)
    • Built plank houses and dugout canoes from cedar wood
  • Arctic region includes Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland
    • Inhabited by Inuit and Aleut peoples
    • Adapted to extreme cold climate through innovative technologies
    • Developed hunting techniques for marine mammals (whales, seals)
    • Created warm clothing from animal skins and furs

Major North American Cultures

Mississippian Culture and Anasazi (Ancestral Puebloans)

  • Mississippian Culture flourished in Midwest and Southeast from 800 to 1600 CE
    • Known for building large earthen mounds (Cahokia)
    • Developed complex chiefdoms with social stratification
    • Engaged in long-distance trade networks
    • Practiced maize agriculture and supplemented with hunting and gathering
  • Anasazi (Ancestral Puebloans) inhabited Southwest from 100 to 1600 CE
    • Built impressive cliff dwellings and multi-story structures (Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon)
    • Developed sophisticated pottery and basketry techniques
    • Created extensive trade networks spanning hundreds of miles
    • Practiced dry farming and constructed irrigation systems

Iroquois Confederacy and Cultural Innovations

  • Iroquois Confederacy formed alliance of five (later six) Iroquoian-speaking nations
    • Established in pre-Columbian era, exact date debated (estimated 1142 CE)
    • Consisted of Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca (and later Tuscarora)
    • Developed complex political system with representative government
    • Created Great Law of Peace, influenced United States Constitution
  • Cultural innovations across North American cultures
    • Developed diverse agricultural techniques adapted to local environments
    • Created unique art forms (pottery, basketry, beadwork)
    • Established complex social and political systems
    • Developed sustainable resource management practices

Key Terms to Review (46)

Vision Quest: A vision quest is a rite of passage and spiritual practice among various Indigenous cultures, where an individual seeks guidance and insight from the spirit world, often through solitude and fasting. This important practice serves as a way for individuals to connect with their spiritual beliefs, find purpose, and gain insights into their lives and future. It reflects the broader spiritual traditions and connection to the natural world that many Indigenous cultures hold dear, and also highlights the variations in practices across different civilizations.
Sun Dance: The Sun Dance is a ceremonial ritual practiced by various Native American tribes, primarily in the Plains region, that involves dance, fasting, and physical endurance. It serves as a spiritual renewal for individuals and their communities, often aimed at healing, prayer, and connection to the Great Spirit. The ritual reflects deep spiritual beliefs and is rooted in the cultural traditions of many Indigenous nations.
Oneida: The Oneida are a Native American tribe originally from what is now New York State, and they are part of the Iroquois Confederacy. Known for their rich cultural heritage, the Oneida have a history of agricultural practices, skilled craftsmanship, and a strong political structure that reflects their democratic principles. Their contributions to the Iroquois Confederacy played a crucial role in shaping early American political thought and practices.
Mohawk: The Mohawk are one of the original five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, primarily located in what is now New York and Canada. They are known for their distinct cultural practices, social structure, and significant historical role in both pre-colonial and colonial North America. As a part of the larger Iroquois cultural region, the Mohawk exemplify the rich diversity of Native American nations, with unique traditions and languages that set them apart from neighboring tribes.
Tipis: Tipis are traditional conical dwellings made from wooden poles and animal hides, commonly associated with the nomadic lifestyles of various Native American tribes, particularly those of the Great Plains. These structures were designed for mobility and practicality, allowing tribes to easily set up and dismantle their homes as they followed bison herds and seasonal migrations.
Mississippian: The Mississippian culture was a Native American civilization that flourished in the southeastern United States from around 800 CE to 1600 CE. Known for its complex societies and large, earthen mound constructions, this culture played a significant role in shaping the major cultural regions of pre-Columbian North America.
Inuit: The Inuit are a group of indigenous peoples who primarily inhabit the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, and Alaska. Known for their rich cultural heritage and adaptation to extreme environments, the Inuit have historically relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering to sustain their communities, developing unique technologies and social structures in the process.
Cayuga: The Cayuga are a Native American tribe originally from the northeastern region of North America, particularly around the Finger Lakes area of New York. As one of the original Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, the Cayuga played a significant role in the political and social landscape of the region, contributing to major cultural and historical developments among indigenous civilizations.
Seneca: The Seneca are one of the six nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy), known for their rich culture, historical significance, and contributions to the political landscape of Native American societies. The Seneca traditionally inhabited areas around present-day New York and Pennsylvania, and they played a crucial role in the development of democratic governance among indigenous peoples.
Mississippian Culture: The Mississippian Culture refers to a complex Native American civilization that thrived in the southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, known for its large, earthen mounds and advanced agricultural practices. This culture is marked by the development of significant urban centers, trade networks, and social hierarchies, highlighting the sophistication of Native American societies prior to European contact.
Pacific Northwest: The Pacific Northwest is a cultural region in North America, primarily encompassing the coastal areas of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Known for its rich natural resources and diverse ecosystems, this region has been home to numerous Indigenous cultures with distinct social structures, economies, and spiritual beliefs, greatly influencing the overall cultural landscape of North America.
Comanche: The Comanche are a Native American tribe originally from the Great Plains, known for their nomadic lifestyle and exceptional horseback riding skills. They played a significant role in shaping the cultural and social dynamics of the regions they inhabited, particularly through their interactions with other tribes and European settlers.
Cheyenne: The Cheyenne are a Native American tribe originally from the Great Plains, known for their rich cultural heritage and distinct social organization. They played a significant role in the history of Native American nations, especially as they adapted to the changing environment brought about by European contact and westward expansion. The Cheyenne's way of life is characterized by their nomadic hunting culture, primarily focused on buffalo, and their complex spiritual beliefs.
Creek: The Creek, also known as the Muscogee, is a Native American tribe originally from the Southeastern United States, primarily in areas now known as Alabama and Georgia. They were part of the larger cultural region known as the Southeastern Woodlands, which was characterized by rich agricultural practices, complex political structures, and vibrant social customs that included matrilineal kinship systems and organized council governance.
Qhapaq ñan: Qhapaq ñan, also known as the Inca Road System, is an extensive network of ancient roads that connected the Inca Empire across the Andes Mountains. This remarkable engineering feat facilitated communication, trade, and military movement, playing a crucial role in unifying the vast and diverse regions of the empire.
Mississippi River: The Mississippi River is one of the longest rivers in North America, stretching approximately 2,340 miles from its source at Lake Itasca in Minnesota to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico. It has historically served as a vital waterway for trade and transportation and has played a crucial role in shaping the cultural regions and civilizations along its banks.
Lakota: The Lakota are a Native American tribe that is part of the larger Sioux Nation, primarily residing in North and South Dakota. They have a rich cultural heritage, characterized by their unique traditions, spirituality, and social organization, which reflect their historical connection to the Great Plains region. The Lakota play an important role in the diversity of Native American cultures and have made significant contributions to contemporary art forms.
Tikal: Tikal is an ancient Mayan city located in present-day Guatemala, known for its impressive archaeological ruins and significant role in the Mayan civilization. As one of the largest and most powerful city-states during the Classic Period of the Maya (approximately 250-900 AD), Tikal played a crucial part in the political, economic, and cultural dynamics of the region, showcasing advanced urban planning, monumental architecture, and intricate societal structures.
Ancestral Puebloans: The Ancestral Puebloans, also known as the Anasazi, were a Native American culture that developed in the Four Corners region of the United States between approximately 100 AD and 1300 AD. They are known for their unique architectural style, particularly cliff dwellings and multi-story buildings made from adobe and stone, which reflect their advanced understanding of agriculture, trade, and social organization in a challenging environment.
Tuscarora: The Tuscarora are a Native American tribe originally from the Carolinas, known for their agricultural practices, social structure, and participation in the Iroquois Confederacy. Their rich cultural heritage includes traditional crafts, spiritual beliefs, and a strong emphasis on community values. The Tuscarora's historical significance is highlighted by their resistance against colonial expansion and their eventual migration to New York, where they joined the Iroquois League.
Onondaga: The Onondaga are one of the original five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, located in present-day New York. Known for their significant role in the political and social structure of the Confederacy, the Onondaga are often referred to as the 'Keepers of the Central Fire' because they served as the central meeting point for the other nations. This unique position allowed them to maintain influence over inter-nation diplomacy and governance.
Aleut: The Aleut are an Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands and the western part of Alaska, known for their rich cultural traditions and connection to the sea. Their history, language, and lifestyle are closely tied to the harsh environments of the North Pacific, which shaped their unique societal structure and way of life, making them an essential part of the cultural tapestry of Native American civilizations in the region.
Cahokia: Cahokia was a pre-Columbian Native American city located near present-day Collinsville, Illinois, and is considered one of the largest and most influential urban centers in North America prior to European contact. The city is renowned for its impressive earthen mounds, complex social structure, and extensive trade networks, reflecting the cultural sophistication of the Mississippian civilization. Cahokia's rise and decline provide critical insights into the development of major cultural regions and civilizations in North America, as well as historical and contemporary perspectives in Native American studies.
Great Plains: The Great Plains is a vast region of flatlands in North America, stretching from Canada down to Texas, known for its grasslands and agriculture. This area was historically significant for numerous Native American nations who adapted their cultures and lifestyles to the unique environment, which connects to both the diversity of their civilizations and their varied cultural expressions.
Chichen Itza: Chichen Itza is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site located in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, which was a major city of the Maya civilization from the 7th to the 10th centuries. This site is known for its impressive architectural structures, including the iconic pyramid known as El Castillo, and it represents a significant cultural center that reflects the social, political, and religious practices of the Maya people during its peak.
Choctaw: The Choctaw are a Native American tribe originally from the southeastern United States, particularly Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama. They are known for their rich cultural heritage, complex social structures, and significant historical contributions, including their role in the southeastern woodlands' cultural regions and their adaptations to European colonization.
Muskogean: Muskogean refers to a family of Native American languages spoken by the Muskogean peoples, including the Creek (Muscogee), Chickasaw, and Choctaw tribes. This language family is significant for understanding the cultural and historical context of these tribes, as it provides insight into their social structures, traditions, and interactions with other groups in the Southeastern United States.
Algonquian: Algonquian refers to a family of languages spoken by various Indigenous peoples in North America, as well as the cultural and social groups associated with these languages. This group primarily inhabited regions stretching from the Atlantic Coast to the Great Lakes and into the Midwest, showcasing a rich cultural diversity and complex societies that adapted to their environments and developed unique ways of life.
Hohokam: The Hohokam were an ancient Native American civilization that thrived in the desert regions of what is now Arizona, particularly between 300 and 1500 CE. They are known for their advanced irrigation systems and distinctive pottery, which played a crucial role in their agricultural practices and cultural identity. The Hohokam's innovative methods of utilizing water from rivers allowed them to cultivate crops in an arid environment, reflecting their adaptation to the Southwestern cultural region.
Chinampas: Chinampas are a traditional Mesoamerican agricultural technique that involves creating floating gardens on shallow lake beds, primarily associated with the Aztec civilization. This innovative farming method allowed for year-round cultivation and maximized agricultural productivity in areas where land was scarce or soil was poor. The use of chinampas not only supported large urban populations but also demonstrated advanced understanding of ecological principles and sustainable farming practices.
Lake Texcoco: Lake Texcoco was a large, shallow lake located in the Valley of Mexico, historically significant as the site of the Aztec capital city, Tenochtitlan. The lake played a crucial role in the agricultural and economic systems of the region, contributing to the rise of one of Mesoamerica's most prominent civilizations.
Hopewell: The Hopewell culture was a Native American civilization that flourished from around 200 BCE to 500 CE, primarily in the Midwest region of what is now the United States. This culture is renowned for its impressive earthworks, burial mounds, and extensive trade networks that connected various regions, reflecting a complex society with significant social, political, and economic organization.
Adena: The Adena culture refers to a Native American civilization that existed from approximately 1000 BCE to 300 CE in the Ohio River Valley region. Known for their burial mounds and complex earthworks, the Adena people were skilled agriculturalists and formed intricate social structures, connecting them to other major cultural regions and civilizations of North America.
Three Sisters: The term 'Three Sisters' refers to the traditional agricultural practice of planting three staple crops: corn, beans, and squash together. This method is deeply rooted in the cultures of many Native American tribes and is integral to their agricultural practices and food systems, showcasing a sustainable approach to farming that promotes biodiversity and environmental stewardship.
Iroquoian: Iroquoian refers to a linguistic and cultural group primarily associated with the Iroquois Confederacy, which includes several Native American tribes located in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. This group is notable for its complex social structures, sophisticated political systems, and rich cultural traditions that have significantly influenced the history of Native American nations.
Anasazi: The Anasazi, also known as the Ancient Puebloans, were a Native American civilization that thrived in the Southwestern United States from around 100 AD to 1300 AD. They are best known for their impressive cliff dwellings and intricate adobe structures, which highlight their advanced architectural skills and unique adaptation to the harsh desert environment.
Mogollon: The Mogollon refers to a prehistoric Native American culture that thrived in the Southwestern United States, particularly in present-day New Mexico and Arizona, from approximately 200 CE to 1450 CE. Known for their unique pottery, pit houses, and later cliff dwellings, the Mogollon played a significant role in the development of major cultural regions and civilizations in the area, showcasing a rich tradition of agriculture, trade, and social organization.
Cusco: Cusco, once the capital of the Inca Empire, is a city located in the Peruvian Andes and is known for its rich cultural heritage and history. This city served as a major political, administrative, and religious center for the Incas, showcasing impressive architecture and advanced engineering that exemplified the civilization's prowess. Its significance extends beyond its historical role, as Cusco remains a vital cultural hub in contemporary Peru, connecting various cultural regions and civilizations.
Tenochtitlan: Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco in present-day Mexico City. Established in 1325, it became a thriving urban center characterized by its complex architecture, advanced agricultural practices, and vibrant trade networks, making it one of the largest cities in the world during its peak in the early 16th century.
Inca Empire: The Inca Empire was a vast and advanced civilization that flourished in South America from the early 15th century until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, primarily located along the western coast of modern-day Peru. Renowned for its sophisticated political organization, extensive road systems, and impressive architectural feats, the Inca Empire significantly influenced the cultural landscape of the Andes region.
Aztec Empire: The Aztec Empire was a powerful Mesoamerican civilization that existed from the 14th to the 16th centuries, centered in what is now Mexico City. Known for its advanced social structures, political organization, and rich cultural traditions, the Aztec Empire played a significant role in the history of pre-Columbian America and influenced subsequent civilizations.
Maya Civilization: The Maya Civilization was an ancient Mesoamerican culture that thrived from around 2000 BCE until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Known for its remarkable achievements in architecture, astronomy, and mathematics, the Maya developed a sophisticated social structure and political organization that allowed them to build city-states across present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras.
Iroquois Confederacy: The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee or the Six Nations, is a historically significant alliance of Native American tribes that includes the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. This political and social organization was established to promote peace, cooperation, and mutual defense among its member nations, playing a crucial role in the region's governance and cultural identity.
Mesa Verde: Mesa Verde is a significant archaeological site located in Colorado, known for its well-preserved cliff dwellings and its connection to the Ancestral Puebloans. This site reflects the advanced architectural skills and cultural practices of its inhabitants, showcasing their spiritual beliefs through the construction of ceremonial structures and their unique relationship with the surrounding landscape.
Chaco Canyon: Chaco Canyon is an archaeological site located in northwestern New Mexico, known for its massive stone structures and as a major center of Ancestral Puebloan culture between AD 900 and 1150. This site played a vital role in the cultural and spiritual practices of the people living there, serving as a hub for trade, ceremonial events, and community gatherings that reflect their deep connection to the land and the cosmos.
Potlatch: Potlatch is a ceremonial feast practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, where hosts give away or destroy valuable items to demonstrate wealth and social status. This event serves as a vital cultural tradition that reinforces social ties, spiritual beliefs, and the redistribution of resources among communities.