🧿Intro to Literary Theory Unit 2 – Russian Formalism & New Criticism

Key Concepts and Principles

• Focus on the intrinsic properties of literary texts rather than extrinsic factors (author's biography, historical context)
• Emphasize the formal elements of literature (plot, character, setting, point of view, imagery, symbolism)
• Treat the literary work as a self-contained, autonomous object to be studied on its own terms
• Aim to identify and analyze the unifying patterns, structures, and devices that contribute to a work's overall meaning and effect
• Prioritize close reading, paying attention to the specific language, techniques, and formal features employed by the author
  • Examine elements such as diction, syntax, figurative language, and narrative structure
  • Analyze how these elements function within the text to create meaning
• Seek to uncover the underlying "literariness" or "poeticity" that distinguishes literary language from ordinary language
• Reject the intentional fallacy, the notion that the author's intended meaning should be the primary concern in interpretation

Historical Context and Origins

• Emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against biographical and impressionistic approaches to literature
• Developed by a group of Russian linguists, literary critics, and scholars associated with the Moscow Linguistic Circle and the Petersburg Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOYAZ)
• Influenced by the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and his theory of the linguistic sign
• Arose in the context of Russian Futurism, a literary and artistic movement that emphasized formal experimentation and the autonomy of art
• Gained prominence in the 1920s and 1930s, particularly through the work of Victor Shklovsky, Roman Jakobson, and Boris Eichenbaum
• Spread to other countries, including the United States, where it influenced the development of New Criticism
• Represented a shift from the Romantic emphasis on the author's genius and the Victorian focus on literature's moral and social functions

Major Figures and Their Contributions

• Victor Shklovsky
  • Introduced the concept of "defamiliarization" or "estrangement" (ostranenie), the idea that literary language makes the familiar seem strange and renewed
  • Argued that the purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived, not as they are known
  • Analyzed the formal techniques used in literature to achieve defamiliarization (puns, metaphors, parallel constructions)
• Roman Jakobson
  • Developed the concept of the "dominant," the focusing component of a work of art that governs, determines, and transforms the other components
  • Explored the poetic function of language, which emphasizes the message for its own sake and draws attention to the formal features of the text
  • Analyzed the role of parallelism, repetition, and variation in poetic language
• Boris Eichenbaum
  • Studied the "melodics" of verse, examining the interplay between intonation and meaning in poetry
  • Investigated the role of narrative voice and skaz (oral-style narration) in prose fiction
  • Emphasized the importance of studying literature as a specific form of verbal art with its own laws and devices
• Boris Tomashevsky
  • Developed the concept of the "motif," a minimal thematic unit that recurs throughout a narrative
  • Analyzed the structure of plots and the arrangement of motifs in literary works
• Yury Tynyanov
  • Explored the evolution of literary genres and the interaction between literary and extra-literary series (social, cultural, historical factors)
  • Studied parody and stylization as means of literary innovation and renewal

Analytical Techniques and Methods

• Close reading involves careful, sustained analysis of the text itself, paying attention to formal elements (diction, syntax, imagery, structure)
• Examination of the literary devices and techniques employed by the author to create meaning and effect
  • Identifies and analyzes figures of speech (metaphor, simile, personification), symbols, and other rhetorical devices
  • Studies narrative techniques (point of view, dialogue, description) and their impact on the reader's understanding and experience
• Analysis of the work's structure, including its plot, character development, and thematic progression
  • Traces patterns of repetition, contrast, and variation in the text
  • Examines how the arrangement of events, scenes, and details contributes to the overall meaning
• Consideration of the genre conventions and how the work adheres to or deviates from them
• Comparison and contrast of the text with other works by the same author or within the same genre to identify distinctive features and innovations
• Attention to the sound and rhythm of the language, particularly in poetry, and how they reinforce or complicate the meaning
• Avoidance of biographical, historical, or ideological interpretations that rely on information outside the text itself

Key Texts and Examples

• "Art as Device" (1917) by Victor Shklovsky
  • Introduces the concept of defamiliarization and argues for the primacy of form over content in literary analysis
  • Analyzes examples from Tolstoy, Gogol, and Sterne to demonstrate how literary techniques make the familiar seem strange
• "The Dominant" (1935) by Roman Jakobson
  • Defines the dominant as the focusing component of a work of art that governs and transforms the other components
  • Analyzes the role of the dominant in various literary genres and movements (Romanticism, Realism, Symbolism)
• "How Don Quixote is Made" (1921) by Boris Eichenbaum
  • Examines the narrative structure and devices in Cervantes' novel, focusing on the interplay between the characters of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza
  • Demonstrates how the novel's form and style create its parodic and ironic effects
• "The Theory of the 'Formal Method'" (1925) by Boris Tomashevsky
  • Outlines the key principles and methods of Russian Formalism, emphasizing the study of literature as a specific form of verbal art
  • Analyzes the structure of plots and the arrangement of motifs in literary works
• "On Literary Evolution" (1927) by Yury Tynyanov
  • Explores the dynamic nature of literary genres and the interaction between literary and extra-literary factors in the development of literature
  • Examines the role of parody and stylization in literary innovation and renewal

Criticisms and Limitations

• Accused of neglecting the content and meaning of literary works in favor of an exclusive focus on form and technique
• Criticized for ignoring the historical, social, and cultural contexts in which literary works are produced and received
• Seen as promoting a narrow, mechanistic view of literature that reduces it to a set of abstract devices and structures
• Challenged for its lack of attention to the emotional, psychological, and moral dimensions of literature and its impact on readers
• Questioned for its assumption of the autonomy and self-sufficiency of the literary text, which may underestimate the role of the reader in the construction of meaning
• Criticized for its limited applicability to certain types of literature, such as non-narrative or experimental forms that resist formal analysis
• Accused of elitism and formalism, prioritizing the study of "high" literature over popular or mass-produced texts
• Challenged by later theoretical approaches (reader-response theory, post-structuralism) that emphasize the instability and multiplicity of textual meaning

Impact on Literary Studies

• Established the study of literature as a distinct and legitimate academic discipline with its own methods and objects of inquiry
• Shifted the focus of literary analysis from the author's biography and intentions to the intrinsic properties of the text itself
• Introduced a rigorous, systematic approach to the study of literary form and technique, laying the groundwork for later developments in structuralism and narratology
• Influenced the development of New Criticism in the United States, which shared its emphasis on close reading and the autonomy of the literary work
• Contributed to the growth of poetics as a field of study, examining the general laws and principles that govern the composition and reception of literary texts
• Stimulated the study of literary devices, genres, and styles across different periods and cultures, leading to a more comparative and historical understanding of literature
• Challenged traditional notions of literary interpretation and evaluation, paving the way for more diverse and innovative approaches to literary analysis
• Continues to be a foundational reference point for contemporary literary theory, even as its assumptions and methods have been questioned and revised

Connections to Other Theories

• Structuralism builds on the Formalist emphasis on the systematic study of literary form and structure, but expands its scope to include the underlying systems and codes that govern all forms of cultural production
• Semiotics, the study of signs and sign systems, draws on the Formalist analysis of literary language as a distinct and self-referential system of communication
• Narratology, the study of narrative structure and technique, develops the Formalist concepts of plot, motif, and device into a comprehensive theory of narrative form and function
• Reception theory and reader-response criticism challenge the Formalist assumption of the autonomy and self-sufficiency of the literary text, emphasizing the role of the reader in the construction of meaning
• Intertextuality, the study of the relations between texts, extends the Formalist analysis of literary evolution and the interaction between literary and extra-literary series
• Marxist literary theory critiques the Formalist separation of literature from its social and historical context, arguing for the need to situate literary works within the material conditions of their production and reception
• Poststructuralism and deconstruction question the Formalist belief in the stability and objectivity of literary meaning, emphasizing the inherent instability and multiplicity of textual interpretation
• New Historicism and cultural studies challenge the Formalist focus on the intrinsic properties of the text, insisting on the need to situate literature within the broader context of cultural and ideological forces.