1.3 History and Development of Anthropological Theory
3 min read•august 9, 2024
Anthropological theory has evolved from early evolutionary and functional approaches to more complex interpretations of culture. This journey reflects changing views on human societies, from simplistic stage-based models to nuanced understandings of cultural diversity and global interconnections.
Today's anthropologists draw on a rich theoretical toolkit to analyze cultural phenomena. They blend materialist, interpretive, and critical perspectives, tackling issues like gender, globalization, health, and the environment. This multifaceted approach helps unravel the complexities of human cultures worldwide.
Early Anthropological Theories
Evolutionary and Historical Approaches
Top images from around the web for Evolutionary and Historical Approaches
File:An evolutionary tree of mammals.jpeg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Determining Evolutionary Relationships | OpenStax Biology 2e View original
Is this image relevant?
Phylogenetic Trees | Biology for Non-Majors II View original
Is this image relevant?
File:An evolutionary tree of mammals.jpeg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Determining Evolutionary Relationships | OpenStax Biology 2e View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Evolutionary and Historical Approaches
File:An evolutionary tree of mammals.jpeg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Determining Evolutionary Relationships | OpenStax Biology 2e View original
Is this image relevant?
Phylogenetic Trees | Biology for Non-Majors II View original
Is this image relevant?
File:An evolutionary tree of mammals.jpeg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Determining Evolutionary Relationships | OpenStax Biology 2e View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- proposed societies progress through fixed stages of development
- Developed by 19th century anthropologists like Lewis Henry Morgan and Edward Tylor
- Stages typically included savagery, barbarism, and civilization
- Assumed Western societies were most advanced
- Critiqued for ethnocentrism and oversimplification of cultural diversity
- emerged as a reaction against unilineal evolution
- Developed by in early 20th century
- Emphasized unique historical development of each culture
- Advocated for intensive and
- Influenced development of American anthropology
Functional and Structural Approaches
- focused on how cultural practices contribute to social stability
- Developed by and in early 20th century
- Viewed cultures as integrated systems where all parts serve a purpose
- Emphasized fieldwork and (Trobriand Islands)
- Critiqued for neglecting historical change and individual agency
- sought to uncover underlying patterns in cultural systems
- Pioneered by in mid-20th century
- Applied linguistic models to analyze kinship, myth, and other cultural domains
- Focused on binary oppositions and transformations in cultural logic
- Influenced fields beyond anthropology (literary criticism, psychology)
Materialist and Interpretive Approaches
Materialist Perspectives
- emphasized material conditions as primary drivers of cultural change
- Developed by in 1960s-70s
- Focused on how technology, environment, and economy shape cultural practices
- Used cost-benefit analysis to explain cultural phenomena (sacred cows in India)
- Critiqued for economic reductionism and neglecting ideological factors
- applied Marxist theory to cultural analysis
- Emerged in 1970s-80s as part of broader critical turn in anthropology
- Focused on , , and
- Examined how economic systems shape social relations and cultural ideologies
- Influenced development of political economy approaches in anthropology
Interpretive and Postmodern Approaches
- focused on understanding cultural meanings and symbols
- Developed by in 1960s-70s
- Emphasized "" to capture complex layers of cultural meaning
- Viewed culture as a system of shared symbols and interpretations (Balinese cockfight)
- Influenced by hermeneutics and literary theory
- challenged grand narratives and objectivity in anthropology
- Emerged in 1980s-90s as critique of traditional ethnographic authority
- Emphasized reflexivity, multiple voices, and power dynamics in ethnographic representation
- Experimented with new forms of ethnographic writing (dialogic, polyphonic)
- Critiqued for relativism and potential paralysis of anthropological practice
Contemporary Perspectives
Critical and Global Approaches
- examines gender relations and challenges androcentric biases
- Emerged in 1970s-80s as part of broader feminist movement
- Critiqued male-centered assumptions in anthropological theory and practice
- Focused on women's experiences, gender construction, and intersectionality
- Influenced development of queer theory and studies of masculinity in anthropology
- analyzes cultural flows and interconnections in a global context
- Developed in response to increased global interconnectedness in late 20th century
- Examines , deterritorialization, and hybrid cultural forms
- Focuses on topics like migration, media flows, and global commodity chains
- Challenges traditional concepts of bounded cultures and fieldwork practices
Emerging Trends and Interdisciplinary Approaches
- explores health, illness, and healing systems across cultures
- Combines biological and cultural approaches to human health
- Examines topics like traditional healing practices, global health inequalities, and biotechnology
- Contributes to public health policy and healthcare delivery (HIV/AIDS interventions)
- studies human-environment interactions and sustainability
- Integrates ecological and cultural perspectives on environmental issues
- Examines topics like climate change adaptation, conservation, and environmental justice
- Contributes to debates on sustainable development and indigenous land rights
Key Terms to Review (26)
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown: A.R. Radcliffe-Brown was a prominent British social anthropologist who is best known for establishing structural functionalism as a major theoretical framework within the discipline. He emphasized the importance of social structures and institutions in understanding human behavior and cultural practices, arguing that these elements serve to maintain social order and cohesion within societies. His work has had a lasting impact on the development of anthropological theory, influencing how researchers approach the study of culture and society.
Bronislaw Malinowski: Bronislaw Malinowski was a pioneering anthropologist known for developing the method of participant observation and emphasizing the importance of understanding cultures from an insider's perspective. His work significantly contributed to ethnographic fieldwork practices, influencing how anthropologists gather data and interact with the communities they study. His ideas reshaped the approach to cultural anthropology, highlighting the importance of immersion in a culture to truly grasp its complexities.
Class struggle: Class struggle refers to the ongoing conflict between different social classes, primarily between the working class (proletariat) and the ruling class (bourgeoisie), over economic, political, and social power. This concept highlights how societal structures and relationships are shaped by the interests and struggles of these classes, leading to tensions that can drive social change and revolution.
Claude Lévi-Strauss: Claude Lévi-Strauss was a French anthropologist and ethnologist whose work laid the foundation for structuralism in anthropology. He emphasized the importance of understanding the underlying structures of human thought and culture, particularly through myths and kinship systems, which connect deeply to various aspects of society, including social organization and cultural practices.
Clifford Geertz: Clifford Geertz was a prominent American anthropologist known for his contributions to the interpretive approach in cultural anthropology, emphasizing the importance of understanding culture through symbols and meanings. His work highlighted the complexity of cultural practices and advocated for a deep, contextual analysis of social behavior, which connects to various aspects of cultural understanding and ethnographic research.
Cultural materialism: Cultural materialism is an anthropological theory that emphasizes the role of material conditions, such as environment, economy, and technology, in shaping culture and social structures. This perspective suggests that understanding a culture's material aspects is crucial to comprehending its beliefs, practices, and overall societal organization. It connects deeply with the broader understanding of culture as it highlights how the physical world influences human behavior and social systems.
Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture rather than be judged against the criteria of another culture. This concept emphasizes the importance of viewing cultures on their own terms, which can help foster understanding and reduce ethnocentrism.
Environmental anthropology: Environmental anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that examines the interactions between human cultures and their environments, focusing on how cultural beliefs and practices influence ecological relationships. This field studies the ways in which people adapt to and transform their surroundings, often considering issues like resource management, sustainability, and environmental justice. Environmental anthropology also addresses the impact of globalization and climate change on cultural practices and environmental conditions.
Feminist anthropology: Feminist anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that seeks to understand and analyze the roles, experiences, and contributions of women across different cultures while challenging traditional gender biases in anthropological research. This perspective emerged as a response to the male-dominated narratives within the field, advocating for a more inclusive understanding of culture that acknowledges the complexities of gender dynamics. It plays a significant role in exploring how gender roles are socially constructed and how they vary across different societies.
Fieldwork: Fieldwork is the primary method of data collection in anthropology, where researchers immerse themselves in the culture and daily life of the people they are studying. This hands-on approach allows anthropologists to gather firsthand insights and experiences, which are crucial for understanding the complexities of human behavior, beliefs, and social structures.
Franz Boas: Franz Boas was a German-American anthropologist known as the 'father of American anthropology,' who emphasized the importance of cultural relativism and historical particularism in understanding human societies. He argued against the racial determinism prevalent in his time and promoted the idea that cultures develop in specific historical contexts, which shaped his contributions to various subfields of anthropology, such as cultural anthropology and physical anthropology.
Functionalism: Functionalism is an anthropological theory that views culture as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order. It emphasizes the role of cultural elements in fulfilling necessary functions for the society, such as maintaining social cohesion, regulating behavior, and fulfilling individuals' needs. This perspective connects various aspects of culture and society, including norms, values, and institutions, demonstrating how they contribute to the overall functioning of a community.
Globalization theory: Globalization theory examines the complex processes by which cultures, economies, and societies become interconnected on a global scale. It explores how these interactions influence local practices, identities, and power dynamics, providing insight into the challenges and opportunities that arise from such interconnectivity.
Historical materialism: Historical materialism is a theoretical framework used to understand human societies and their development through the lens of material conditions, particularly economic factors. This approach emphasizes that the mode of production and class relations are fundamental in shaping society's institutions, ideas, and cultural practices, leading to changes over time.
Historical particularism: Historical particularism is an anthropological theory that emphasizes the importance of understanding cultures within their specific historical contexts, rather than applying general theories to explain cultural phenomena. This approach argues that each society has its own unique history that shapes its cultural practices, beliefs, and social structures, leading to diverse and distinct cultural expressions across the world.
Interpretive Anthropology: Interpretive anthropology is an approach within the field of anthropology that emphasizes understanding cultural practices and beliefs through the meanings that individuals and communities assign to them. It focuses on the subjective experiences of people, aiming to interpret social phenomena from the participants' perspectives, rather than imposing external frameworks. This approach connects deeply with the historical development of anthropological theory, types of religious beliefs and practices, and the role of religion in contemporary society.
Marvin Harris: Marvin Harris was a prominent American anthropologist known for his contributions to cultural materialism, a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of material conditions in shaping culture and social practices. His work has significantly influenced the history and development of anthropological theory, especially in understanding how economic and environmental factors impact human societies.
Marxist Anthropology: Marxist anthropology is an approach within the field of anthropology that applies Marxist theory to understand cultural practices, social structures, and power dynamics. It focuses on the relationship between culture and economic systems, emphasizing how class struggles and material conditions shape human behavior and societal organization. This perspective critiques capitalism and highlights the role of economic factors in the development of cultures over time.
Medical anthropology: Medical anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that focuses on understanding health, illness, and healing practices within different cultural contexts. It explores how social, economic, and environmental factors influence health outcomes and the ways in which various cultures perceive and treat illness. By integrating insights from both anthropology and medicine, it aims to improve healthcare delivery and address global health challenges.
Modes of Production: Modes of production refer to the varied ways in which societies organize the production of goods and services, encompassing the means of production (like tools, factories, and land) and the social relations involved in that production. This concept is crucial in understanding how different cultures have adapted their economic systems over time, reflecting the relationships between labor, resources, and social structures.
Participant Observation: Participant observation is a qualitative research method commonly used in anthropology, where researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of the people they study to gain a deeper understanding of their culture, behaviors, and social interactions. This approach allows researchers to collect rich, detailed data through direct involvement and observation, enhancing their insights into the subjects' experiences and perspectives.
Postmodernism: Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of thought that emerged in the mid-20th century, characterized by skepticism toward grand narratives and ideologies, embracing relativism and the idea that meaning is constructed through cultural contexts. In anthropology, postmodernism questions the objective truths claimed by earlier theories, emphasizing the subjective nature of knowledge and the importance of diverse perspectives, which reshaped the discipline's approach to cultural analysis.
Structuralism: Structuralism is an intellectual movement that seeks to understand the underlying structures that shape human culture and behavior, emphasizing the relationships and systems that organize societies. This approach posits that cultural phenomena, including language, myths, and social practices, can be analyzed through the structures that govern them, revealing deep-seated patterns in human thought and interaction.
Thick Description: Thick description is an approach in cultural anthropology that emphasizes the importance of detailed, contextual analysis of social practices, behaviors, and meanings. It goes beyond surface-level observations to uncover the layers of significance behind cultural phenomena, providing a deeper understanding of the complexities within societies.
Transnational Processes: Transnational processes refer to the ways in which social, political, economic, and cultural activities extend beyond national boundaries, facilitating connections between people and communities across different countries. These processes highlight the interconnectedness of global systems, emphasizing how migration, trade, and communication impact local cultures and societies while simultaneously shaping broader trends in global anthropology.
Unilineal Evolution Theory: Unilineal evolution theory is the concept that cultures develop in a single line of progression, moving from simple to more complex forms. This perspective suggests that all societies evolve through the same stages of development, often categorized as savagery, barbarism, and civilization, reflecting a Eurocentric view that posits Western societies as the pinnacle of cultural evolution.