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Intro to Comparative Politics
Table of Contents
Unit 14 Overview: Comparing Political Systems: Global Cases
14.1 Comparative Analysis of Western Democracies
14.2 Political Systems in Post-Communist Countries
14.3 Governance in the Developing World
14.4 Emerging Powers and Their Political Systems

Post-communist countries face a tough balancing act. They're trying to switch from planned economies to market-based ones while also shifting from authoritarian rule to democracy. It's a double whammy of change that's super tricky to pull off.

These nations are dealing with a ton of challenges. They've got to build democratic institutions from scratch, tackle corruption, and manage economic upheaval. Plus, they're wrestling with the legacy of communist rule and the rise of new power players like oligarchs.

Political Transitions in Post-Communist States

Challenges of Simultaneous Economic and Political Transitions

  • Post-communist countries face the daunting task of transitioning from a centrally planned economy to a market-based economy while also shifting from an authoritarian political system to a democratic one
  • The absence of established democratic traditions and institutions in post-communist countries can impede the formation of a stable and effective political system
  • The communist era's legacy, including the Communist Party's dominance and the suppression of dissent, can pose significant barriers to political reform and democratization efforts
  • The rise of nationalist sentiments and ethnic tensions in certain post-communist countries can contribute to political instability and conflict (Yugoslavia, Ukraine)

Obstacles to Political Reform and Democratization

  • The influence of powerful oligarchs and entrenched elites can undermine the fairness and transparency of the political process in post-communist states (Russia, Ukraine)
  • The weakness of the rule of law and the prevalence of corruption can erode public trust in political institutions and hinder the consolidation of democracy
  • The lack of experience with democratic governance and the absence of a strong civil society can slow down the pace of political reforms in post-communist countries
  • The economic challenges associated with the transition, such as high unemployment and inflation, can lead to social unrest and political instability (Bulgaria, Romania)

Civil Society in Post-Communist Reforms

Role of Civil Society Organizations

  • Civil society organizations, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and grassroots movements, can play a crucial role in advocating for political reforms and holding governments accountable in post-communist countries (Solidarity in Poland, Otpor in Serbia)
  • The development of independent media outlets can contribute to greater transparency and public scrutiny of government actions in post-communist states
  • The engagement of citizens in political activism, such as protests and demonstrations, can put pressure on governments to implement democratic reforms (Orange Revolution in Ukraine, Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia)
  • The formation of trade unions and professional associations can provide a counterbalance to state power and promote the interests of specific groups in post-communist societies

Challenges Faced by Civil Society

  • The ability of civil society to effectively mobilize and influence political change can be limited by factors such as state repression, lack of resources, and internal divisions within civil society groups
  • The involvement of international organizations and foreign donors in supporting civil society initiatives can help to strengthen the capacity and impact of these actors in shaping political reforms (USAID, Open Society Foundations)
  • The sustainability of civil society organizations can be threatened by the withdrawal of foreign funding or the imposition of restrictive regulations by the government (Russia's foreign agent law)
  • The co-optation of civil society groups by political parties or the government can undermine their independence and credibility in advocating for reforms

Economic Liberalization and Political Development

Social and Political Consequences of Economic Transition

  • The transition from a centrally planned economy to a market-based system can create winners and losers, leading to social and political tensions in post-communist societies
  • The privatization of state-owned enterprises can lead to the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few individuals or groups, which can have implications for political influence and corruption (oligarchs in Russia and Ukraine)
  • The introduction of economic reforms, such as price liberalization and the removal of subsidies, can lead to short-term economic hardships and social unrest, which can strain the political system (Balcerowicz Plan in Poland)

Interplay between Economic Reforms and Political Legitimacy

  • The success of economic reforms in generating growth and improving living standards can enhance the legitimacy and stability of the political system in post-communist countries
  • The ability of the state to manage the economic transition and provide social safety nets can shape public perceptions of the political system and its effectiveness
  • The integration of post-communist economies into the global market can create new opportunities and challenges for political development, such as the need to adapt to international norms and standards (WTO membership, EU accession)
  • The unequal distribution of the benefits of economic growth can fuel popular discontent and undermine the credibility of democratic institutions (Colored Revolutions in Georgia and Ukraine)

Democratic Consolidation in Post-Communist States

Indicators of Democratic Progress

  • The extent to which post-communist countries have established free and fair elections, with genuine competition among political parties, can be a key indicator of democratic consolidation
  • The presence of a functioning system of checks and balances, with an independent judiciary and a strong parliament, can help to ensure the accountability and responsiveness of the government to the people
  • The protection of civil liberties and political rights, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and association, is essential for the consolidation of democracy in post-communist states
  • The level of political participation and engagement among citizens, including voter turnout and the strength of civil society, can reflect the depth and sustainability of democratic practices

Challenges to Democratic Consolidation

  • The ability of post-communist states to manage ethnic, religious, and regional divisions through inclusive and representative political institutions can be crucial for maintaining stability and unity (Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia)
  • The influence of external actors, such as the European Union and other international organizations, can play a role in supporting or hindering the consolidation of democracy in post-communist countries
    • The prospect of EU membership has served as a powerful incentive for democratic reforms in many post-communist states (Central and Eastern Europe), while the lack of a clear EU perspective has slowed progress in others (Western Balkans)
  • The persistence of authoritarian tendencies and the weakness of democratic institutions can undermine the consolidation of democracy in post-communist states (Belarus, Azerbaijan)
  • The role of informal networks and patronage systems in shaping political outcomes can challenge the establishment of a level playing field in democratic competition (nomenklatura in former Soviet states)

Key Terms to Review (30)

Civil society organizations: Civil society organizations (CSOs) are non-governmental organizations that operate independently from the government and the market, often focused on social, cultural, and political issues. They play a critical role in fostering civic engagement, advocating for rights, and holding governments accountable. CSOs can influence voter turnout and political participation by mobilizing communities, raising awareness about important issues, and encouraging citizens to engage in democratic processes.
Azerbaijan: Azerbaijan is a country located at the crossroads of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, bordered by the Caspian Sea to the east. It gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, transitioning from a socialist republic to a presidential republic. The political landscape of Azerbaijan is characterized by its unique blend of authoritarian governance and strategic geopolitical importance, particularly due to its energy resources and proximity to both Europe and Asia.
Belarus: Belarus is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia. It has a unique political system characterized by authoritarian rule under President Alexander Lukashenko since 1994, often described as Europe's last dictatorship. This authoritarian regime has impacted the political landscape and governance in post-communist countries, shaping Belarus's relationship with both Western nations and neighboring Russia.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country located in Southeast Europe on the Balkan Peninsula, which emerged from the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. This multi-ethnic state is characterized by a complex political system that reflects its diverse population, comprising mainly Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats, and has been shaped by both historical conflicts and ongoing efforts for political stability.
North Macedonia: North Macedonia is a country located in Southeast Europe on the Balkan Peninsula, known for its complex political history and recent transition to a parliamentary democracy. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, it declared independence in 1991, and its political system has evolved significantly since then, reflecting broader trends in post-communist governance.
EU Accession: EU accession refers to the process through which a country becomes a member of the European Union, involving compliance with various political, economic, and legal criteria. This process is significant for post-communist countries as it often entails major reforms in governance, law, and economy, aiming for integration into the European market and adherence to EU standards. The accession process can also influence domestic politics and shape national identity as countries align themselves more closely with Western Europe.
Market reform: Market reform refers to the process of transitioning an economy from a centrally planned system to a more market-oriented system, emphasizing deregulation, privatization, and the establishment of competitive markets. This transformation aims to enhance efficiency, stimulate economic growth, and integrate into the global economy by reducing state control over production and encouraging private enterprise.
Colored revolutions: Colored revolutions refer to a series of non-violent political movements that emerged in several post-communist countries during the early 2000s, aimed at challenging authoritarian regimes and advocating for democratic reforms. These revolutions were characterized by peaceful protests, civic engagement, and the use of symbolic colors or flowers to signify opposition to the ruling government. They highlight the struggle for democracy and human rights in regions with a history of oppressive governance.
Oligarchs: Oligarchs are wealthy individuals who exert significant political and economic influence in a country, often forming a small ruling elite. In the context of post-communist countries, oligarchs emerged as powerful figures following the collapse of communist regimes, leveraging their wealth to gain control over key industries and shape political outcomes. Their influence can lead to the concentration of power and corruption, undermining democratic processes and governance.
Balcerowicz Plan: The Balcerowicz Plan was a series of economic reforms initiated in Poland in 1989 to transition from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented system. Designed by Leszek Balcerowicz, the plan aimed to stabilize the economy, control hyperinflation, and lay the groundwork for sustainable growth through liberalization, privatization, and deregulation. This transformative approach has become a model for other post-communist countries striving for economic recovery and democratization.
WTO Membership: WTO membership refers to the status of being a member of the World Trade Organization, which is an international body that regulates and facilitates international trade between nations. Membership signifies a country's commitment to abide by the organization's rules and agreements, which aim to ensure fair trade practices, reduce trade barriers, and promote economic cooperation among countries. This concept is especially relevant in the context of post-communist countries as they transition from centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems, seeking integration into the global economy.
Privatization: Privatization is the process of transferring ownership of a business, enterprise, or public service from the government to private individuals or organizations. This often involves deregulating industries, selling state-owned enterprises, and encouraging competition within the market. In post-communist countries, privatization has been a key aspect of economic reforms aimed at transitioning from centrally planned economies to market-based systems.
USAID: USAID, or the United States Agency for International Development, is a U.S. government agency responsible for administering civilian foreign aid and development assistance. It plays a crucial role in promoting economic development, democracy, and humanitarian relief, especially in post-communist countries transitioning from authoritarian regimes to more democratic political systems.
Open Society Foundations: Open Society Foundations (OSF) is a philanthropic organization founded by George Soros, aimed at promoting democracy, human rights, and the rule of law across the globe. By supporting civil society initiatives, OSF seeks to foster open societies where individuals can express their views and participate in political processes, which is particularly significant in post-communist countries where democratic institutions were often weak or repressed.
Political engagement: Political engagement refers to the ways in which individuals and groups participate in political processes, including voting, activism, and public discourse. It is crucial for influencing policy decisions and shaping democratic governance, especially in contexts where political systems are evolving or undergoing transformation. Understanding political engagement helps to analyze how citizens interact with their governments and the impact of that interaction on societal change.
Vladimir Putin: Vladimir Putin is a Russian politician who has served as the President of Russia and Prime Minister at various times since the late 1990s. His leadership has been marked by a shift towards authoritarianism, a consolidation of power within the state, and an aggressive foreign policy that has reasserted Russia's influence on the global stage, especially in post-communist political systems.
Lech Wałęsa: Lech Wałęsa is a Polish politician, human rights activist, and former trade union leader who co-founded the Solidarity movement, which played a crucial role in the fight against communist rule in Poland. He served as the President of Poland from 1990 to 1995 and became a symbol of the struggle for democracy in post-communist countries, illustrating the broader transition from authoritarian regimes to democratic governance in Eastern Europe.
Transitology: Transitology is the study of the processes and conditions that lead to democratic transitions, particularly in countries shifting from authoritarian regimes to democratic governance. It involves analyzing the political, social, and economic factors that facilitate or hinder this transition, focusing on the strategies employed by both political leaders and civil society. This concept is particularly relevant in understanding the challenges faced by post-communist countries as they navigate their paths towards democracy and establish new political systems.
Orange Revolution: The Orange Revolution was a series of protests and political events that took place in Ukraine from late 2004 to early 2005, following a disputed presidential election. It was marked by mass mobilizations of citizens demanding fair electoral practices and transparent governance, leading to a re-run of the election that ultimately resulted in the victory of opposition candidate Viktor Yushchenko. This movement is emblematic of the struggles for democracy and reform in post-communist countries.
Political liberalization: Political liberalization refers to the process of expanding democratic governance and civil liberties within a political system. This often includes reforms such as increasing political pluralism, enhancing individual rights, and promoting greater accountability in government institutions. In post-communist countries, political liberalization has been a critical step toward transitioning from authoritarian regimes to more open and democratic societies.
Poland: Poland is a Central European country known for its rich history and significant political transformations, especially after the fall of communism in 1989. As a post-communist country, Poland transitioned from a one-party state under Soviet influence to a multi-party democracy with a market-oriented economy, marking a pivotal shift in its political landscape and societal structure.
Transitioning economies: Transitioning economies refer to nations that are shifting from a centrally planned economic system, often associated with communism, to a more market-oriented economy. This process typically involves significant reforms in political and economic structures, which may include privatization, deregulation, and the establishment of market mechanisms. The success of this transition can greatly impact the political systems and social dynamics of these countries, particularly those emerging from post-communism.
Russia: Russia is the largest country in the world, spanning Eastern Europe and northern Asia, and has a complex political history shaped by its past as a communist state. In the context of political systems in post-communist countries, Russia represents a unique case of transitioning from a centralized, authoritarian regime to a more complex political landscape influenced by both democratic and autocratic elements. Additionally, when examining party systems, Russia's political environment showcases the dominance of a single party and the challenges of multiparty competition within its political framework.
Velvet Revolution: The Velvet Revolution was a non-violent transition of power in Czechoslovakia that occurred in late 1989, leading to the end of 41 years of communist rule. This peaceful uprising marked a significant moment in the broader movement away from communism in Central and Eastern Europe, characterized by mass protests, political negotiation, and the mobilization of civil society against an oppressive regime.
Hybrid regime: A hybrid regime is a political system that combines elements of both democratic and authoritarian governance. This type of regime often includes some level of electoral competition and civil liberties, but these features are undermined by government manipulation, lack of genuine pluralism, and restricted political freedoms. Hybrid regimes can be found in many post-communist countries where democratic institutions exist on paper, but the reality is a more controlled and less free political environment.
State capacity: State capacity refers to the ability of a government to effectively implement its policies, maintain order, and provide public services within its territory. High state capacity is characterized by strong institutions, resources, and authority, which enable governments to govern effectively and respond to citizens' needs. When state capacity is low, governments struggle to fulfill their responsibilities, leading to instability and challenges in state-building.
Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the concentration of power in a single authority or a small group, where individual freedoms are often restricted, and political pluralism is limited. This system stands in contrast to democratic governance, impacting how states operate and interact with their citizens and the international community.
Democratization: Democratization is the process through which a political system transitions from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one, enabling greater public participation and the establishment of democratic institutions. This term connects closely to concepts like political culture, the dynamics of political systems, and the factors influencing transitions in governance.
Nomenklatura: Nomenklatura refers to a system of selective appointments and a list of influential positions within a political system, particularly in communist states. This term encapsulates the idea that access to key roles and privileges is often limited to a specific class or group, which reinforces the ruling party's control over society and governance. It is closely tied to the broader dynamics of political systems, especially in how economic systems can influence power structures.
Rule of Law: The rule of law is the principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable under the law, which is fairly applied and enforced. This concept ensures that laws govern a nation, as opposed to arbitrary decisions by individual government officials, establishing a framework that supports democracy, justice, and human rights.