🫴Physical Science Unit 3 – Matter and Its Properties

What's Matter Anyway?

• Matter makes up everything in the universe that has mass and takes up space
• Consists of atoms, the fundamental building blocks of matter
• Can exist in various states (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) depending on temperature and pressure
• Has both physical properties (color, texture, melting point) and chemical properties (flammability, reactivity)
  • Physical properties can be observed without changing the substance's composition
  • Chemical properties describe how a substance behaves during a chemical reaction
• Interacts with energy in different ways (absorbs, reflects, or transmits light, heat, and sound)
• Follows the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a closed system
• Undergoes physical changes (changes in state or appearance) and chemical changes (changes in chemical composition)

The Building Blocks: Atoms and Molecules

• Atoms are the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element
  • Consist of protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative charge)
  • Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus, while electrons orbit the nucleus in shells
• Elements are substances made up of only one type of atom (gold, oxygen, carbon)
• Compounds are substances made up of two or more elements chemically combined in a specific ratio (water, salt, sugar)
• Molecules are groups of atoms held together by chemical bonds
  • Can be made up of the same element (oxygen gas, O2) or different elements (carbon dioxide, CO2)
• Ions are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons, giving them a positive or negative charge (sodium ion, Na+; chloride ion, Cl-)
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons (carbon-12, carbon-13, carbon-14)
• Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom, which determines the element's identity
• Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus

States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas (and Plasma!)

• Matter can exist in four main states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma
• In a solid, particles are closely packed together and vibrate in fixed positions
  • Solids have a definite shape and volume (ice, rocks, metals)
• In a liquid, particles are close together but can move around each other
  • Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their container (water, oil, honey)
• In a gas, particles are far apart and move randomly with high energy
  • Gases have no definite shape or volume and will expand to fill their container (air, helium, steam)
• Plasma is a high-energy state where electrons are stripped from atoms, creating a mix of positive ions and free electrons
  • Plasmas are found in stars, lightning, and neon signs
• Changes between states are called phase transitions (melting, freezing, vaporization, condensation, sublimation)
  • Phase transitions occur at specific temperatures and pressures depending on the substance
• Triple point is the temperature and pressure at which a substance can exist as a solid, liquid, and gas simultaneously

Physical vs. Chemical Properties

• Physical properties are characteristics that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's composition
  • Examples include color, odor, density, melting point, boiling point, and solubility
• Chemical properties describe how a substance behaves during a chemical reaction
  • Examples include flammability, reactivity with acids or bases, and tendency to rust or tarnish
• Intensive properties are independent of the amount of substance present (density, melting point, boiling point)
• Extensive properties depend on the amount of substance present (mass, volume, heat capacity)
• Some properties can be both physical and chemical depending on the context
  • Solubility is a physical property when dissolving salt in water, but a chemical property when reacting sodium with water
• Physical properties are often used to identify and separate substances (separating a mixture of sand and salt based on solubility)
• Chemical properties help predict how substances will behave in chemical reactions (using flammability to determine fire safety)

Measuring Matter: Mass, Volume, and Density

• Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object
  • Measured in grams (g) or kilograms (kg) using a balance or scale
  • Remains constant regardless of location or gravitational force
• Volume is a measure of the amount of space an object occupies
  • Measured in cubic units such as cubic centimeters (cm³) or liters (L)
  • Can be determined by displacement of water or by calculating from linear dimensions
• Density is a measure of how much mass is contained in a given volume of a substance
  • Calculated using the formula: density = mass ÷ volume
  • Expressed in units such as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per liter (kg/L)
• Density is an intensive property, meaning it is characteristic of a substance and does not depend on the amount present
  • Different substances have different densities (water: 1 g/cm³, gold: 19.3 g/cm³, air: 0.001225 g/cm³)
• Density can be used to identify unknown substances or to predict whether an object will float or sink in a liquid
  • Objects with a density less than the liquid will float, while objects with a greater density will sink

Changes in Matter: Physical and Chemical

• Physical changes alter the appearance or state of a substance without changing its chemical composition
  • Examples include cutting paper, melting ice, or dissolving sugar in water
  • Physical changes are usually reversible (evaporating and condensing water)
• Chemical changes, or chemical reactions, result in the formation of new substances with different properties
  • Examples include rusting of iron, burning of fuel, or cooking an egg
  • Chemical changes are usually irreversible and involve breaking and forming chemical bonds
• Signs of a chemical change include color change, gas production, solid formation (precipitate), or energy change (heat, light)
• Reactants are the starting materials in a chemical reaction, while products are the substances formed as a result
• Chemical equations represent chemical reactions using symbols and formulas
  • Reactants are written on the left side of the arrow, and products are written on the right side
  • Law of conservation of mass applies: the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of products
• Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process
  • Catalysts lower the activation energy required for a reaction to occur

Special Properties: Conductivity, Malleability, and More

• Conductivity is the ability of a substance to allow the flow of heat or electricity
  • Metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity due to their free-flowing electrons
  • Insulators, such as rubber and plastic, have poor conductivity and are used to prevent heat or electrical transfer
• Malleability is the ability of a substance to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without breaking
  • Metals like gold, silver, and copper are highly malleable
• Ductility is the ability of a substance to be drawn into a wire without breaking
  • Metals like copper, aluminum, and gold are highly ductile
• Brittleness is the tendency of a substance to break or shatter under stress
  • Materials like glass, ceramic, and cast iron are brittle
• Elasticity is the ability of a substance to return to its original shape after being deformed
  • Rubber and some polymers exhibit high elasticity
• Hardness is a substance's resistance to scratching or indentation
  • Measured using the Mohs scale, with talc (1) being the softest and diamond (10) being the hardest
• Thermal expansion is the tendency of a substance to increase in volume when heated
  • Most substances expand when heated, but some (like water) contract under certain conditions

Real-World Applications and Cool Stuff

• Materials science is the study of the properties, structure, and performance of materials
  • Involves developing new materials with specific properties for various applications
• Nanotechnology deals with matter at the nanoscale (1-100 nanometers)
  • Nanomaterials exhibit unique properties due to their high surface area to volume ratio
  • Applications include drug delivery, water filtration, and energy storage
• Biomaterials are substances engineered to interact with biological systems for medical purposes
  • Examples include artificial heart valves, dental implants, and contact lenses
• Smart materials are designed to respond to external stimuli such as temperature, pressure, or electric fields
  • Shape memory alloys return to their original shape when heated
  • Piezoelectric materials generate an electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress
• Composites are materials made by combining two or more substances with different properties
  • Reinforced concrete, fiberglass, and carbon fiber composites offer high strength and low weight
• Superconductors are materials that conduct electricity with zero resistance below a critical temperature
  • Applications include powerful electromagnets, efficient power transmission, and magnetic levitation
• States of matter beyond solid, liquid, and gas include:
  • Bose-Einstein condensates: ultra-cold matter where atoms behave as a single entity
  • Supercritical fluids: substances above their critical point, exhibiting properties of both liquids and gases
  • Quark-gluon plasma: extremely high-energy state of matter found in the early universe and recreated in particle accelerators