🌶️new mexico history review
5.2 Navajo (Diné) history and the Long Walk
Last Updated on August 14, 2024
The Navajo, or Diné, faced a harrowing chapter in their history with the Long Walk. This forced relocation in 1864 uprooted thousands from their ancestral lands, marching them over 300 miles to Bosque Redondo reservation.
The Long Walk's impact on Navajo culture and society was profound. It disrupted traditional ways of life, caused immense suffering, and became a defining moment in their collective memory. Their eventual return and rebuilding efforts showcased remarkable resilience.
Origins of the Navajo
Migration and Early History
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- The Navajo, or Diné, are an Athabaskan-speaking people who migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska to the Southwest between 1100 and 1500 CE
- The Navajo were primarily hunter-gatherers and later adopted farming techniques from the Pueblos, growing crops such as corn, beans, and squash
Cultural Exchange and Development
- The Navajo developed a strong trading relationship with the Spanish, exchanging goods like textiles and livestock
- The Navajo culture was influenced by the Pueblos, adopting elements of their religion, art, and architecture, while maintaining their distinct language and traditions
- The Navajo were known for their skilled weaving, creating intricate textiles using wool from their sheep, which became an important part of their economy and cultural identity
- Navajo weavers created distinctive patterns and designs that reflected their spiritual beliefs and connection to the natural world
- The sale of Navajo textiles to traders and tourists provided a significant source of income for many Navajo families
Forced Relocation of the Navajo
Escalating Tensions and Military Campaign
- Tensions between the Navajo and the United States government escalated in the mid-19th century due to the expansion of American settlers into Navajo territory and the U.S. government's attempts to assert control over the region
- The U.S. Army, led by Colonel Kit Carson, launched a brutal campaign against the Navajo in 1863, destroying their crops, livestock, and homes to force them into submission
- The "scorched earth" tactics employed by the U.S. Army aimed to starve the Navajo into surrender by eliminating their food sources and means of subsistence
- Many Navajo were killed or captured during the military campaign, while others fled to remote areas to escape the violence
The Long Walk and Internment
- Many Navajo sought refuge in the remote Canyon de Chelly, but the U.S. Army pursued them, leading to the surrender of thousands of starving and demoralized Navajo
- In 1864, the U.S. government ordered the forced relocation of the Navajo from their homeland to the Bosque Redondo reservation at Fort Sumner, New Mexico, a journey of over 300 miles known as the "Long Walk"
- The Long Walk was marked by harsh conditions, including inadequate food, water, and shelter, leading to the death of hundreds of Navajo from starvation, exposure, and disease
- Navajo elders, women, and children were forced to walk the grueling distance to Bosque Redondo, often with little rest or sustenance
- The trauma of the Long Walk left a lasting impact on Navajo society, as families were separated and many never survived the journey
Impact of the Long Walk
Disruption of Traditional Life and Culture
- The forced relocation and internment at Bosque Redondo had devastating consequences for the Navajo, disrupting their traditional way of life and social structures
- The Navajo were forced to abandon their sacred homeland, which held deep spiritual and cultural significance, leading to a sense of displacement and loss of identity
- The confinement at Bosque Redondo made it difficult for the Navajo to maintain their traditional practices, such as weaving, farming, and religious ceremonies, threatening the survival of their culture
- The Navajo were unable to grow their traditional crops or raise their livestock, which were central to their subsistence and cultural practices
- The suppression of Navajo religious ceremonies and practices at Bosque Redondo further eroded their cultural identity and connection to their ancestral traditions
Suffering and Collective Memory
- The poor conditions at the reservation, including alkaline water, limited food supplies, and outbreaks of disease, led to widespread suffering and death among the Navajo
- The Navajo faced starvation, malnutrition, and exposure to harsh weather conditions during their internment at Bosque Redondo
- Diseases such as smallpox and dysentery spread rapidly among the confined population, claiming many lives
- The Long Walk and the experience at Bosque Redondo became a defining moment in Navajo history, shaping their collective memory and identity as a people who had endured and survived great hardship
- The stories of the Long Walk and the suffering endured at Bosque Redondo were passed down through generations, becoming an integral part of Navajo oral history and cultural memory
- The Long Walk serves as a poignant reminder of the resilience and strength of the Navajo people in the face of adversity
Navajo Return and Rebuilding
Treaty of 1868 and Reservation Establishment
- In 1868, the U.S. government signed a treaty with the Navajo, allowing them to return to a portion of their ancestral homeland and establishing the Navajo Nation reservation
- The return to their homeland was a joyous occasion for the Navajo, but they faced significant challenges in rebuilding their communities and way of life
- The Navajo had to start from scratch, constructing new homes, planting crops, and gathering livestock to reestablish their livelihoods
- The process of rebuilding was slow and arduous, as the Navajo had limited resources and support from the U.S. government
Challenges and Ongoing Struggles
- The Navajo had to rebuild their homes, reestablish their farms and herds, and revive their cultural practices that had been disrupted during their time at Bosque Redondo
- The Navajo Nation reservation, while providing a land base for the Navajo, was smaller than their original territory and often lacked adequate resources and infrastructure
- The reservation boundaries did not encompass all of the Navajo's traditional lands, leading to ongoing disputes over land rights and access to sacred sites
- The reservation often lacked basic infrastructure, such as roads, schools, and healthcare facilities, making it difficult for the Navajo to thrive
- The Navajo faced ongoing challenges in their relationship with the U.S. government, including disputes over land rights, natural resources, and the implementation of federal policies that often undermined Navajo sovereignty and self-determination
- The discovery of oil, coal, and uranium on Navajo lands led to exploitation by outside interests and environmental degradation, impacting the health and well-being of Navajo communities
- Federal policies, such as the Indian Reorganization Act and the Bureau of Indian Affairs, often imposed external control over Navajo affairs, limiting their ability to make decisions about their own future
Key Terms to Review (18)
Land Grants: Land grants are parcels of land given by a government or authority to individuals or groups for various purposes, such as settlement, agriculture, or military service. In the context of New Mexico, these grants played a crucial role in shaping settlement patterns and land use, particularly during the transitions from Spanish to Mexican rule and later under U.S. governance. They were intended to encourage colonization and development but often led to conflicts over land ownership and rights among various communities.
Diné bizaad: Diné bizaad is the Navajo language, an essential part of the cultural identity and heritage of the Navajo (Diné) people. It serves not only as a means of communication but also as a vessel for the traditions, stories, and values that define Navajo culture. The language plays a crucial role in community bonding and the transmission of knowledge across generations.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state or governing body to govern itself, make its own laws, and exercise control over its territory and affairs without external interference. This concept is crucial for understanding the political and cultural autonomy of groups, particularly in the context of indigenous peoples who strive for self-determination and recognition of their rights. Sovereignty is often challenged by external forces, especially in cases of colonization and expansion, where indigenous nations seek to assert their rights and maintain their cultural identity amidst pressures from dominant societies.
Navajo Language Revitalization: Navajo language revitalization refers to the efforts and initiatives aimed at preserving and promoting the Navajo language, which is critical to the identity and culture of the Navajo (Diné) people. This revitalization movement addresses the decline in fluent speakers, especially among younger generations, and emphasizes the importance of language in cultural continuity, community cohesion, and educational practices.
The period of confinement: The period of confinement refers to the time when the Navajo people were forcibly removed from their homelands and held in a designated area, primarily during the mid-1860s after the Long Walk. This period was marked by suffering, deprivation, and loss of life, as the Navajo faced harsh conditions and were stripped of their autonomy and cultural practices.
Hózhó: Hózhó is a Navajo concept that embodies harmony, beauty, balance, and order in life. It serves as a guiding principle in Navajo culture, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a positive relationship with oneself, others, and the environment. This idea is especially significant in the context of the Navajo experience during historical events like the Long Walk, where the struggle for identity and resilience is intertwined with the pursuit of hózhó.
Post-long walk era: The post-long walk era refers to the period following the Long Walk of the Navajo (Diné) people, a forced relocation that took place in the mid-19th century. This era is marked by the efforts of the Navajo to reclaim their land, rebuild their culture, and navigate the complex relationships with the U.S. government, which included treaties and attempts at assimilation. It highlights a time of resilience, adaptation, and the resurgence of traditional practices amidst ongoing challenges.
Land reclamation: Land reclamation is the process of creating new land from oceans, riverbeds, or lakes, often involving the restoration of disturbed land to a more natural or productive state. This practice has significant implications for environmental management, agriculture, and resource extraction, especially in regions affected by historical disruptions and industrial activities.
Yéii: Yéii refers to the sacred beings or deities in Navajo (Diné) culture, often associated with the creation and harmony of the world. They play a crucial role in Navajo spirituality and ceremonies, embodying various elements of life, nature, and healing. The concept of yéii is deeply intertwined with the beliefs surrounding the Long Walk and the resilience of the Diné people during difficult times.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law signed by President Andrew Jackson in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This policy aimed to open up land for white settlers and was justified by a belief in Manifest Destiny, which held that Americans were destined to expand across the continent. The act had devastating effects on various tribes, particularly the Navajo and Apache, leading to loss of life, culture, and land.
Barboncito: Barboncito refers to a significant Navajo (Diné) leader and figure during the Long Walk, the forced relocation of the Navajo people in the 1860s. His leadership was marked by resistance to U.S. military forces and a strong commitment to the preservation of Navajo culture and identity during a tumultuous period, making him an essential symbol of resilience and advocacy for his people.
Fort Sumner: Fort Sumner was a military outpost established in the mid-19th century in New Mexico, most notably recognized for its role in the internment of the Navajo people during their Long Walk. It served as a central location for the U.S. government to control and relocate the Navajo after their forced removal from their ancestral lands, significantly impacting their history and cultural identity.
Naayéneizgháni: Naayéneizgháni refers to the concept of the 'Monster Slayer' in Navajo mythology, symbolizing the hero who confronts and defeats the monstrous threats to humanity. This figure is significant in Navajo culture as it embodies the themes of courage, resilience, and the restoration of balance within the world. The Monster Slayer's narrative connects deeply with historical events, particularly during the Long Walk, representing hope and strength amid adversity.
Diné bikéyah: Diné bikéyah refers to the traditional homeland of the Navajo people, encompassing areas in the present-day Southwestern United States, particularly in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. This term embodies the cultural, spiritual, and historical significance of the land for the Diné, connecting them to their ancestors and their way of life. The landscape of diné bikéyah is not just geographical; it represents a deep connection to identity, community, and resilience, especially in the context of their history and experiences during events such as the Long Walk.
Long Walk: The Long Walk refers to the forced relocation of the Navajo people in the 1860s by the United States government, which resulted in the movement of thousands of Navajo from their ancestral lands to a designated reservation at Bosque Redondo in New Mexico. This event is significant as it reflects the broader patterns of displacement and suffering faced by Native American tribes during westward expansion and U.S. policies aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples.
Manuelito: Manuelito was a significant Navajo (Diné) leader during the mid-19th century, known for his role in the resistance against U.S. military actions and policies affecting the Navajo people. He emerged as a key figure during the period of the Long Walk, advocating for the rights and welfare of his people as they faced forced relocation and harsh conditions imposed by U.S. forces. His leadership not only symbolizes the struggle of the Navajo people but also highlights the broader context of Athabaskan migration and early Navajo history.
Navajo Treaty of 1868: The Navajo Treaty of 1868 is an agreement between the United States government and the Navajo Nation, which marked the end of the Long Walk, a forced relocation of the Navajo people. This treaty recognized the sovereignty of the Navajo Nation and established a designated reservation in their ancestral homeland, restoring some land that had been taken during conflicts in the 1860s. The treaty also aimed to promote peace and facilitate the rebuilding of the Navajo community after years of hardship.
Cultural Survival: Cultural survival refers to the ongoing ability of a group to maintain and develop its cultural identity and traditions in the face of external pressures, such as colonization, assimilation, or cultural homogenization. It involves the practices, beliefs, and social structures that help a community preserve its heritage and adapt to changing circumstances while fostering resilience against erasure.