🌽native american studies review
2.3 Pre-Columbian technologies, agriculture, and trade networks
Last Updated on August 9, 2024
Pre-Columbian societies developed impressive technologies and agricultural practices. From the Three Sisters planting method to advanced irrigation systems, Native Americans maximized crop yields and sustainability. These innovations supported large populations and complex civilizations across the Americas.
Trade networks and infrastructure further connected diverse cultures. Long-distance exchange of goods and ideas flourished, while monumental architecture like Cahokia's Monks Mound and the Inca road system showcased engineering prowess. These achievements laid the foundation for thriving pre-Columbian societies.
Agriculture and Farming
Advanced Cultivation Techniques
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- Three Sisters agriculture combined corn, beans, and squash in a symbiotic planting system
- Corn provided support for climbing bean vines
- Beans fixed nitrogen in the soil, benefiting the other plants
- Squash spread along the ground, suppressing weeds and retaining soil moisture
- Irrigation systems channeled water from rivers and streams to crops
- Aztecs developed chinampas (artificial islands) in shallow lakes for year-round farming
- Hohokam people in present-day Arizona created extensive canal networks spanning hundreds of miles
- Terrace farming transformed steep hillsides into arable land
- Inca built stone-walled terraces on Andean mountainsides
- Terraces prevented soil erosion and maximized limited agricultural space
- Allowed cultivation of diverse crops at different elevations (potatoes, quinoa, maize)
Agricultural Innovations and Crop Diversity
- Selective breeding improved crop yields and resilience
- Native Americans developed thousands of corn varieties adapted to different climates
- Domesticated wild plants like tomatoes, peppers, and peanuts
- Crop rotation and intercropping practices maintained soil fertility
- Alternated nitrogen-fixing plants with heavy feeders
- Planted complementary crops together to maximize land use and deter pests
- Utilized natural fertilizers to enrich soil
- Composted organic matter and animal manure improved soil structure
- Some cultures used fish or shellfish remains as fertilizer
Craftsmanship and Tools
Stone and Metalworking Technologies
- Obsidian tools prized for their extreme sharpness and versatility
- Aztecs crafted atlatls (spear-throwers) with obsidian points for hunting and warfare
- Mayans created intricate ceremonial blades and mirrors from obsidian
- Copper mining and metalworking emerged in North America around 4000 BCE
- Native peoples of the Great Lakes region cold-hammered copper into tools and ornaments
- Andes civilizations developed sophisticated copper alloys, including bronze
- Stone carving techniques produced monumental sculptures and intricate jewelry
- Olmecs carved colossal stone heads weighing up to 50 tons
- Aztec artisans created elaborate calendar stones and sacrificial altars
Artistic and Practical Crafts
- Pottery served both utilitarian and ceremonial purposes
- Puebloan peoples of the Southwest United States developed distinctive black-on-white pottery
- Moche culture of Peru created portrait vessels depicting individuals and deities
- Weaving techniques produced textiles for clothing, trade, and religious purposes
- Inca wove fine cloth from alpaca and vicuña wool using backstrap looms
- Navajo developed intricate geometric patterns in their blankets and rugs
- Canoe building techniques varied by region and available materials
- Pacific Northwest tribes crafted dugout canoes from massive cedar logs
- Eastern Woodland peoples constructed birchbark canoes, lightweight and portable
- Featherwork artistry created elaborate headdresses and cloaks
- Aztec rulers wore resplendent cloaks made from thousands of tropical bird feathers
- Amazonian tribes crafted intricate feather mosaics for ceremonial use
Trade and Infrastructure
Expansive Trade Networks
- Trade routes connected diverse regions and cultures across the Americas
- Hopewell Interaction Sphere linked communities from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast
- Inca road system stretched over 25,000 miles, facilitating trade and communication
- Long-distance trade in luxury goods and raw materials
- Turquoise from the American Southwest reached Mesoamerica
- Shells from the Pacific Coast found in the Eastern Woodlands
- Standardized trade items served as currency in some regions
- Cacao beans used as currency in Mesoamerican markets
- Wampum belts of shell beads served as currency and record-keeping devices in Eastern North America
Monumental Architecture and Engineering
- Mound building traditions spanned thousands of years and diverse cultures
- Poverty Point in Louisiana featured massive earthen mounds and ridges circa 1700 BCE
- Cahokia in Illinois, largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico, centered around 100-foot Monks Mound
- Advanced urban planning in major civilizations
- Teotihuacan in central Mexico housed over 100,000 people in a grid-like city plan
- Machu Picchu demonstrated Inca mastery of stone construction and water management
- Astronomical observatories and calendrical structures
- Maya built El Caracol at Chichen Itza to track celestial movements
- Aztec Templo Mayor aligned with important astronomical events
- Transportation infrastructure facilitated trade and communication
- Inca suspension bridges spanned deep gorges in the Andes
- Maya constructed raised limestone causeways (sacbeob) to connect cities
Key Terms to Review (31)
Inca Suspension Bridges: Inca suspension bridges were remarkable engineering structures made primarily from natural fibers, designed to span deep valleys and canyons in the Andes mountains. These bridges played a crucial role in connecting remote communities, facilitating trade, and allowing for the movement of people and goods across the rugged terrain of the Inca Empire, showcasing their advanced understanding of materials and structural stability.
Teotihuacan: Teotihuacan was an ancient Mesoamerican city located in the Basin of Mexico, known for its massive pyramids and complex urban layout. It was one of the largest cities in the world during its peak around 500 AD, serving as a major cultural and economic center that influenced trade networks, agricultural practices, and technologies throughout Mesoamerica.
El Caracol: El Caracol is an ancient Maya structure located in the ruins of the city of Chichen Itza, Mexico, known for its unique architectural design and astronomical significance. This observatory-like building was used to track celestial bodies and played a vital role in the agricultural calendar and trade practices of the Maya civilization, reflecting their advanced understanding of astronomy and its practical applications in agriculture and commerce.
Machu Picchu: Machu Picchu is an ancient Incan city located in the Andes Mountains of Peru, often referred to as the 'Lost City of the Incas.' This iconic site is a remarkable example of Pre-Columbian architecture and engineering, showcasing advanced agricultural practices, sophisticated water management systems, and an intricate network of roads that connected it to other regions. Its significance extends beyond its stunning ruins; Machu Picchu serves as a testament to the ingenuity and cultural richness of the Incan civilization in pre-Columbian times.
Templo Mayor: Templo Mayor, meaning 'Great Temple' in Spanish, was the central place of worship in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. It served as a crucial religious and cultural hub, showcasing advanced architectural and engineering techniques while symbolizing the importance of agriculture and trade networks within the society. The temple was dedicated to the Aztec gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, linking it directly to the agricultural cycles and economic activities that supported the Aztec civilization.
Poverty Point: Poverty Point refers to an archaeological site located in northeastern Louisiana, recognized as a significant prehistoric settlement that dates back to around 1700-1100 BCE. This site is notable for its large earthworks and is considered one of the earliest complex societies in North America, showcasing advanced pre-Columbian technologies, agricultural practices, and extensive trade networks.
Hopewell Interaction Sphere: The Hopewell Interaction Sphere refers to a complex network of trade and cultural exchange among various Native American societies in the eastern United States during the Hopewell period, roughly 200 BCE to 500 CE. This network facilitated the movement of goods, ideas, and technologies across vast distances, linking communities through shared practices in agriculture, art, and ceremonial life.
Moche Culture: Moche culture refers to a Pre-Columbian civilization that flourished on the northern coast of Peru from about 100 to 800 CE, known for its advanced agricultural practices, intricate pottery, and complex social structure. This civilization is significant for its innovations in technology and trade, which played crucial roles in their agricultural success and cultural development.
Olmecs: The Olmecs were one of the earliest known Mesoamerican civilizations, flourishing from around 1200 BCE to 400 BCE in present-day Mexico. Known for their monumental stone heads and contributions to early Mesoamerican culture, the Olmecs significantly influenced later civilizations through advancements in agriculture, technology, and trade networks.
Wampum Belts: Wampum belts are intricately crafted pieces of art made from shell beads, particularly from the whelk and quahog shells, strung together to form patterns and designs. They served various purposes in Native American societies, including as a means of communication, record-keeping, and trade. The creation and exchange of wampum belts reflect significant aspects of social interaction, diplomacy, and economic exchanges among Indigenous communities and highlight the importance of trade networks in pre-Columbian times.
Mound building traditions: Mound building traditions refer to the cultural practices of various Indigenous peoples in North America who constructed earthen mounds for a variety of purposes, including ceremonial, burial, and residential uses. These traditions showcase advanced societal organization, impressive engineering skills, and complex social structures that were integral to the development of Pre-Columbian societies. The mounds often served as significant cultural symbols, reflecting the values and beliefs of the communities that created them.
Canoe Building Techniques: Canoe building techniques refer to the methods and skills used to construct canoes, traditionally significant for transportation, trade, and cultural practices among various Native American tribes. These techniques often involved the selection of specific types of wood, tools for shaping and assembly, and knowledge of watercraft design that optimized functionality and stability. Mastery of these techniques was essential for creating canoes suited for various environments, facilitating both economic activities and cultural exchanges.
Weaving techniques: Weaving techniques refer to the various methods and processes used to interlace threads or fibers to create textiles. In the context of Pre-Columbian societies, these techniques were not only crucial for producing clothing and blankets but also held cultural significance, often reflecting social status, community identity, and artistic expression. Mastery of weaving was essential for sustaining daily life and facilitated trade networks by enabling the production of goods that could be exchanged among different groups.
Stone carving techniques: Stone carving techniques refer to the various methods and tools used to shape and create sculptures, inscriptions, and other forms of artwork from stone materials. These techniques were vital for artistic expression and cultural storytelling in ancient societies, especially among Indigenous peoples, allowing them to produce intricate carvings that held significant social and spiritual meanings.
Pacific Northwest Tribes: Pacific Northwest Tribes refer to the diverse Indigenous peoples inhabiting the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest, including present-day Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. These tribes are known for their rich cultural heritage, intricate social structures, and reliance on the abundant natural resources available in their environment, which influenced their pre-Columbian technologies, agriculture, and trade networks.
Inca Road System: The Inca Road System was an extensive network of roads and trails built by the Inca Empire, spanning over 25,000 miles across rugged terrain in the Andes Mountains. This system not only facilitated communication and trade among diverse regions but also played a crucial role in the administration and military control of the vast empire. It connected important cities, agricultural areas, and resource-rich regions, significantly enhancing the economic and social integration of the Inca civilization.
Cacao beans: Cacao beans are the dried and fully fermented seeds of Theobroma cacao, the tree from which chocolate is derived. These beans played a crucial role in Pre-Columbian societies, not only as a food source but also as a significant item in trade networks and agricultural practices, impacting social and economic structures.
Featherwork artistry: Featherwork artistry refers to the intricate craft of using feathers to create decorative objects, clothing, and ceremonial items. This traditional art form was practiced by various Indigenous peoples across the Americas, particularly in Mesoamerica and the Andes, where feathers held significant cultural, spiritual, and social value. The creation of featherwork pieces often required advanced techniques, showcasing not only aesthetic beauty but also a deep connection to the natural world and cultural identity.
Obsidian Tools: Obsidian tools are sharp implements crafted from obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass. These tools were highly valued in various Pre-Columbian cultures for their ability to be shaped into sharp edges, making them effective for cutting, scraping, and hunting. The production and use of obsidian tools illustrate advanced technological skills and played a crucial role in agricultural practices and trade networks among different Native American communities.
Three Sisters Agriculture: Three Sisters Agriculture refers to a traditional planting technique used by many Native American tribes, involving the intercropping of corn, beans, and squash. This method takes advantage of the unique growth habits and nutrient contributions of each plant, creating a sustainable agricultural system that enhances soil health and provides diverse nutrition for communities.
Chinampas: Chinampas are a traditional Mesoamerican agricultural technique that involves creating floating gardens on shallow lake beds to grow crops. This method allowed for highly productive farming in the Valley of Mexico, especially during the Aztec civilization, and is a prime example of pre-Columbian innovation in agriculture and sustainable land use practices.
Atlatls: An atlatl is a tool used to throw spears or darts with greater force and distance by leveraging the mechanical advantage of a flexible shaft. This ancient technology allowed hunters to effectively increase their hunting success by delivering projectiles more accurately and powerfully. Atlatls are significant in understanding the technological advancements in prehistoric societies and their impact on subsistence strategies and trade networks.
Terrace Farming: Terrace farming is an agricultural practice that involves creating stepped levels on mountainous or hilly terrain to cultivate crops. This method allows for effective water management and soil conservation, making it easier to farm in areas where traditional flat land is not available. By using these terraces, ancient civilizations were able to maximize agricultural output and maintain sustainable farming practices in challenging environments.
Metalworking: Metalworking is the process of shaping and crafting metals to create tools, weapons, ornaments, and other objects. This technique played a crucial role in the development of various civilizations, as it allowed for the production of durable goods, which were essential for both daily life and trade.
Copper Mining: Copper mining refers to the extraction of copper ore from the earth, which has been practiced by various cultures throughout history, including Pre-Columbian societies in the Americas. This process played a crucial role in shaping the technological advancements, agricultural practices, and trade networks of these societies, as copper was a valuable resource used for tools, ornaments, and trade items.
Pottery: Pottery refers to ceramic ware made by shaping and then firing a non-metallic mineral, such as clay, at high temperatures to create durable objects. This ancient craft not only served functional purposes, like storage and cooking, but also played a key role in cultural expression and trade within various societies, highlighting technological advancements and artistic traditions.
Hohokam: The Hohokam were an ancient Native American culture that thrived in the present-day southwestern United States, particularly in what is now Arizona, from around 300 CE to 1500 CE. They are best known for their sophisticated irrigation systems, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid desert landscape, and their extensive trade networks that connected them with other cultures across the region.
Irrigation Systems: Irrigation systems are methods used to supply water to crops and agricultural lands, enabling effective farming in regions with insufficient rainfall. These systems played a crucial role in supporting complex societies by enhancing agricultural productivity, which in turn facilitated trade and cultural exchange among Pre-Columbian civilizations. By managing water resources efficiently, these societies could sustain larger populations and engage in extensive agricultural practices.
Inca: The Inca were a powerful civilization that flourished in the Andes region of South America from the early 15th century until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Known for their advanced agricultural practices, extensive trade networks, and remarkable architectural achievements, the Incas created a vast empire that was one of the most sophisticated societies in pre-Columbian history.
Cahokia: Cahokia was a major pre-Columbian Native American city located near present-day St. Louis, Missouri, and is recognized for its impressive earthen mounds and complex societal structure. It was one of the largest urban centers in North America before European contact, showcasing advanced agricultural practices, extensive trade networks, and significant cultural developments that reflect the major civilizations of the region.
Maya: The Maya were an ancient civilization known for their remarkable achievements in architecture, mathematics, astronomy, and writing, flourishing in Mesoamerica from around 2000 BCE to the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Their complex society was characterized by city-states, advanced agricultural practices, and extensive trade networks that connected various regions across Central America.