Native American Studies
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19.1 Historical overview of Native American military service
Last Updated on August 9, 2024
Native Americans have a long history of military service, fighting in conflicts from the American Revolution to World War II. Despite facing discrimination and lack of citizenship, they volunteered in large numbers, serving as code talkers, scouts, and in various combat roles.
Their contributions were significant, with over 12,000 serving in World War I and 44,000 in World War II. This service influenced civil rights movements and led to increased recognition, challenging stereotypes and shaping U.S.-tribal relations.
Early Conflicts
Native American Involvement in Colonial-Era Wars
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- American Revolution witnessed Native American tribes fighting on both sides
- Oneida and Tuscarora nations allied with colonists
- Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations supported British forces
- Iroquois Confederacy played a significant role in shaping colonial conflicts
- Consisted of six nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora)
- Maintained a complex system of alliances and diplomacy with European powers
- Native American participation in the American Revolution led to lasting consequences
- Treaty of Paris (1783) ceded Native lands to the new United States without tribal consultation
- Resulted in widespread displacement and loss of ancestral territories
Civil War and Native American Soldiers
- Civil War saw Native Americans fighting for both Union and Confederate armies
- Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations allied with the Confederacy
- Delaware, Seneca, and Pawnee tribes supported the Union
- Native American units formed during the Civil War
- Indian Home Guard regiments organized by Union forces in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
- Cherokee Mounted Rifles served in the Confederate army
- Post-Civil War period brought significant changes for Native American tribes
- Reconstruction treaties imposed new terms on tribes that had allied with the Confederacy
- Led to further loss of tribal lands and sovereignty
World Wars
Native American Contributions in World War I
- World War I marked increased Native American military participation
- Over 12,000 Native Americans served in the U.S. armed forces
- Volunteered despite not being granted U.S. citizenship until 1924
- Native American soldiers served in various roles
- Infantry, cavalry, and support units
- Snipers and scouts, utilizing traditional hunting and tracking skills
- World War I service influenced post-war Native American rights movements
- Contributed to the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
Native American Service in World War II
- World War II saw extensive Native American military involvement
- Approximately 44,000 Native Americans served in the U.S. armed forces
- Represented more than 10% of the Native American population at the time
- Native American soldiers participated in all branches of the military
- Served in combat units, support roles, and specialized positions
- Fought in major campaigns across Europe and the Pacific theaters
- World War II service led to increased recognition of Native American contributions
- Helped challenge racial stereotypes and discrimination
- Influenced post-war civil rights movements within Native American communities
Code Talkers and Their Impact
- Navajo Code Talkers played a crucial role in World War II
- Developed an unbreakable code based on the Navajo language
- Utilized in the Pacific theater for secure communications
- Code Talkers from other tribes also contributed to military communications
- Comanche, Choctaw, and Hopi code talkers served in various theaters
- Cherokee and Choctaw code talkers had previously served in World War I
- Code Talkers' contributions remained classified for decades
- Navajo Code Talkers' role declassified in 1968
- Received formal recognition and honors in the late 20th and early 21st centuries
20th Century Conflicts
Native American Participation in the Korean and Vietnam Wars
- Korean War saw continued Native American military service
- Approximately 10,000 Native Americans served in the conflict
- Fought in integrated units following the desegregation of the U.S. military in 1948
- Vietnam War involved significant Native American participation
- More than 42,000 Native Americans served in Vietnam
- Native Americans had the highest per-capita participation rate of any ethnic group
- Native American veterans faced unique challenges upon returning home
- Struggled with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and readjustment issues
- Experienced discrimination and lack of access to veterans' services on reservations
Recognition and Honors for Native American Service Members
- Medal of Honor recipients highlighted Native American valor in combat
- Five Native Americans received the Medal of Honor during the 20th century conflicts
- Recipients include Mitchell Red Cloud Jr. (Korean War) and Roy Benavidez (Vietnam War)
- Native American veterans received increased recognition in recent decades
- National Native American Veterans Memorial dedicated in Washington, D.C. in 2020
- Efforts to improve access to veterans' services for Native American communities
- Native American military service continues to shape tribal identity and U.S.-tribal relations
- Warrior tradition remains an important aspect of many Native American cultures
- Military service often viewed as a continuation of traditional tribal roles and values
Key Terms to Review (29)
American Revolution: The American Revolution was a colonial revolt that took place between 1775 and 1783, where the thirteen American colonies fought against British rule to gain independence. This conflict marked a significant turning point in history as it not only established the United States as a new nation but also had profound effects on Native American relations, leading to further conflicts with European settlers and the U.S. government. The revolution inspired various indigenous groups to rethink their positions and alliances, leading to complex dynamics between Native Americans and the emerging United States.
Post-traumatic stress disorder: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that can occur after someone experiences or witnesses a traumatic event. It is characterized by symptoms such as flashbacks, severe anxiety, and uncontrollable thoughts about the event. In the context of historical injustices faced by Indigenous peoples, including forced assimilation and combat experiences, PTSD has significant implications for understanding the psychological impact of these traumas on individuals and communities.
Chickasaw: The Chickasaw are a Native American people originally from the southeastern United States, primarily in what is now Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee. They played a significant role in early American history through their interactions with European settlers and their involvement in various treaties that shaped their sovereignty and land rights, along with notable contributions to military service during key conflicts in U.S. history.
Choctaw: The Choctaw are a Native American tribe originally from the southeastern United States, primarily located in what is now Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama. They are known for their rich culture, language, and significant historical experiences, particularly during events such as the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, which led to their forced removal from their ancestral lands.
National Native American Veterans Memorial: The National Native American Veterans Memorial is a dedicated space in Washington, D.C., that honors the service and sacrifices of Native American veterans throughout U.S. history. This memorial serves as a symbol of recognition for the unique contributions of Native Americans in the military, addressing their often overlooked legacy and providing a place for healing and reflection.
Medal of Honor recipients: Medal of Honor recipients are individuals who have been awarded the highest military decoration in the United States for valor in action against an enemy force. This prestigious honor recognizes extraordinary acts of bravery and heroism, often under dire circumstances, and has been awarded to numerous Native American soldiers throughout history, highlighting their significant contributions to U.S. military efforts.
Vietnam War: The Vietnam War was a protracted conflict that occurred from 1955 to 1975, primarily involving North Vietnam and its communist allies against South Vietnam and the United States. This war had a profound impact on American society, military strategy, and international relations, especially regarding the experiences of various ethnic groups, including Native Americans who served in combat roles.
Korean War: The Korean War was a conflict that lasted from 1950 to 1953, involving North Korea and South Korea, with significant military engagement from the United States and other allied nations. This war marked a crucial moment in the Cold War, highlighting the global struggle between communist and capitalist ideologies, and it had lasting effects on international relations, particularly concerning the role of Native Americans in military service during this period.
Reconstruction Treaties: Reconstruction treaties refer to a series of agreements made in the late 19th century between the United States government and various Native American tribes, aimed at redefining their rights and land ownership following the Civil War. These treaties often included promises of land, resources, and autonomy for tribes in exchange for their loyalty and military service during the war, reflecting a complex relationship between Native nations and federal authority during this transformative period.
Indian Citizenship Act: The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 was a significant piece of legislation that granted U.S. citizenship to Native Americans, acknowledging their status as American citizens for the first time. This act was a critical step in recognizing the rights of Native Americans, particularly in relation to their service in the military and their role in American society, marking a shift in federal policy towards Indigenous peoples.
Indian Home Guard: The Indian Home Guard was a volunteer military force established during the American Civil War, primarily composed of Native Americans and loyalist settlers. This organization was formed to protect local communities and maintain order during a time of conflict, reflecting the complicated relationships between Native American tribes, settlers, and the U.S. government. The service of these volunteers highlights the diverse roles that Native Americans played in military contexts, often navigating their dual identities as both defenders of their homelands and participants in broader national conflicts.
Cherokee Mounted Rifles: The Cherokee Mounted Rifles was a military unit formed by the Cherokee Nation during the American Civil War, consisting of predominantly Cherokee soldiers. This unit played a significant role in the war, representing a unique instance of Native American military service and highlighting the complexities of loyalty, identity, and conflict during this turbulent period in U.S. history.
Pawnee: The Pawnee are a Native American tribe originally from the Great Plains region of the United States, known for their agricultural practices, complex social structure, and unique spiritual beliefs. Historically, they engaged in a variety of military alliances and conflicts, particularly during the 19th century, when their role in military service became significant amidst the pressures of westward expansion and interactions with European settlers and other tribes.
Civil War: A civil war is a conflict between groups within the same country, often over political, social, or economic issues, leading to widespread violence and the potential for significant changes in governance. In the context of Native American military service, civil wars have historically impacted tribal nations, often drawing them into broader national conflicts and reshaping their roles within American society.
Treaty of Paris: The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, marked the end of the American Revolutionary War, recognizing American independence from Britain and establishing borders for the new nation. This treaty had significant implications for Native American military service, as it reshaped the political landscape and altered the relationships between Native nations and the newly formed United States.
Cayuga: The Cayuga are one of the six nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy, historically residing in the region around Cayuga Lake in present-day New York. They have a rich cultural heritage and have contributed significantly to the history and military service of Native Americans, especially during conflicts like the American Revolution and the War of 1812.
Delaware: The Delaware are a Native American tribe originally from the northeastern United States, primarily known for their connections to the Lenape people. They played a significant role in early American history, particularly during military conflicts, including their service in various wars that shaped the United States.
Mohawk: The Mohawk is a Native American tribe originally from the northeastern region of North America, particularly present-day New York. They are one of the six nations of the Haudenosaunee, also known as the Iroquois Confederacy, and have a rich cultural heritage and history of military service, especially during conflicts such as the French and Indian War and the American Revolution.
Onondaga: The Onondaga are a Native American tribe originally from what is now central New York, and they are one of the original members of the Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee. Historically, they have played a critical role in military alliances and governance among the Iroquois, particularly during conflicts with European settlers and other tribes.
Seneca: The Seneca are one of the six nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy), known for their rich cultural heritage and significant role in Native American military service. Historically, the Seneca people were prominent in trade and diplomacy and became vital allies to various European powers during conflicts such as the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War.
Tuscarora: The Tuscarora are a Native American tribe originally from North Carolina, known for their significant role in early American history, particularly during conflicts with European settlers and their participation in the Iroquois Confederacy. They moved to New York after their defeat in the Tuscarora War in the early 18th century, where they became the sixth nation of the Iroquois League, highlighting their resilience and adaptability in response to colonial pressures.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, involving many of the world's great powers and resulting in significant political, social, and economic changes. The war had a profound impact on Native American military service, as many Indigenous peoples enlisted or were drafted to fight alongside American forces, reflecting their ongoing struggle for rights and recognition.
Oneida: The Oneida are a Native American tribe that is part of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy, originally located in what is now central New York. Known for their involvement in the Revolutionary War and their unique cultural practices, the Oneida played a significant role in the history of Native American military service and engagement with colonial powers.
Navajo Code Talkers: Navajo Code Talkers were Native American soldiers who used their language to create an unbreakable code during World War II, enabling secure communication for the U.S. military. Their unique contribution was crucial in various battles in the Pacific Theater, showcasing the impact of Native American military service in a time of global conflict.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority and independence of a state or group to govern itself without external interference. This concept is central to understanding the political, legal, and cultural dimensions of Native American identity, as it addresses the rights of indigenous nations to self-determination, control over their land, and governance according to their own laws and customs.
Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, values, and behaviors of another culture, often resulting in the loss of their original cultural identity. This process can be influenced by various factors such as migration, social integration, and the desire for acceptance in a new environment. The implications of cultural assimilation are significant, particularly for marginalized communities as they navigate the complexities of identity and belonging in changing social landscapes.
World War II: World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations, including the great powers divided into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war significantly impacted global politics, economies, and societies, leading to massive shifts in population and military service, especially among marginalized groups, including Native Americans, who experienced urban migration and a renewed sense of identity and warrior traditions during this tumultuous period.
Cherokee: The Cherokee are a Native American tribe originally from the southeastern United States, specifically areas that include present-day North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. They are one of the largest tribes in the U.S. and have a rich cultural heritage that includes a complex social structure, a written language developed by Sequoyah, and a history marked by both adaptation and resistance to European colonization and forced relocation.
Iroquois Confederacy: The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee or Six Nations, is a powerful alliance of Native American tribes that originally consisted of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and later the Tuscarora. This confederacy was established to promote peace, cooperation, and collective defense among its member nations, creating a sophisticated governance system that influenced political thought and democratic principles in North America.