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History of Modern China
Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Opium Wars and China's Unequal Treaties
2.1 Causes and events of the First Opium War
2.2 The Treaty of Nanjing and its consequences
2.3 The Second Opium War and the Treaty of Tianjin
2.4 Long-term effects of the Unequal Treaties on China

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2.4 Long-term effects of the Unequal Treaties on China

Citation:

The Unequal Treaties, forced upon China by Western powers, had far-reaching economic and political consequences. These agreements stripped China of tariff autonomy, opened treaty ports, and granted foreigners special privileges, severely undermining China's sovereignty and economic control.

China's response to these treaties was multifaceted. The government attempted diplomatic negotiations and initiated reforms, while a growing sense of nationalism emerged among the population. This led to anti-foreign sentiment and calls for the abolition of unequal provisions, shaping China's path towards modernization and revolution.

Economic and Political Consequences of the Unequal Treaties

Economic consequences of Unequal Treaties

  • Loss of tariff autonomy fixed import tariffs at 5% or less
    • Deprived China of revenue and control over foreign trade
    • Left China unable to protect domestic industries from foreign competition
  • Establishment of treaty ports forced opening of Chinese ports to foreign trade and residence (Shanghai, Guangzhou, Xiamen)
    • Concentrated foreign economic activity in treaty ports
    • Limited economic benefits to the rest of China
  • Extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction exempted foreigners from Chinese laws and jurisdiction
    • Disadvantaged Chinese merchants in disputes with foreign counterparts
  • Most-favored-nation clause automatically extended privileges granted to one foreign power to all others
    • Limited China's ability to negotiate better terms with individual countries

Impact on China's sovereignty

  • Infringement on China's sovereignty as foreign powers dictated terms of treaties
    • Undermined China's autonomy
    • Led to presence of foreign enclaves and spheres of influence within China (Hong Kong, Macau)
  • Humiliation and loss of face due to unequal nature of treaties
    • Seen as a national humiliation
    • Perpetuated perception of China as weak and inferior to Western powers
  • Social and cultural impact of introduction of foreign ideas, customs, and religions in treaty ports
    • Challenged traditional Chinese society and values
  • Erosion of Qing dynasty's legitimacy due to inability to resist foreign demands and protect China's interests
    • Grew discontent and criticism of Qing rule among Chinese elites and population

China's Response to the Unequal Treaties

Influence on foreign relations

  • Efforts to renegotiate treaties and revise or abolish unequal provisions through diplomacy
    • Met with limited success due to power imbalance and lack of leverage
  • Self-strengthening movement adopted Western technology, education, and military reforms (shipbuilding, arsenals)
    • Aimed to strengthen China and resist foreign encroachment
  • Diplomatic initiatives established the Zongli Yamen (Office of Foreign Affairs) to handle foreign relations
    • Attempted to play foreign powers against each other and assert China's interests
  • Impact on modernization exposed China to Western ideas and technologies through treaty ports and foreign contact
    • Catalyzed reforms in education, industry, and governance, albeit limited in scope

Rise of Chinese nationalism

  • Growth of anti-foreign sentiment led to resentment towards foreign privileges and interference in China's affairs
    • Sparked incidents of anti-foreign violence (Boxer Rebellion)
  • Intellectual and political awakening critiqued China's weaknesses and need for change by reformist thinkers
    • Emergence of nationalist and revolutionary movements (Tongmenghui)
  • Nationalism as a unifying force appealed to national pride and sovereignty in the face of foreign humiliation
    • Called for the abolition of unequal treaties and restoration of China's rights
  • Anti-imperialism as a political agenda opposed foreign domination and exploitation
    • Demanded an end to extraterritoriality, treaty ports, and other unequal provisions

Key Terms to Review (14)

Self-Strengthening Movement: The Self-Strengthening Movement was a late 19th-century initiative in China aimed at modernizing the military and economy while maintaining Confucian values. It emerged as a response to the challenges posed by Western imperialism and aimed to adopt Western technology and methods to strengthen China against foreign powers.
Anti-imperialism: Anti-imperialism is a political stance opposing imperialism and the domination of one country over another, advocating for the rights and self-determination of oppressed nations. This ideology emerged as a response to the exploitative practices of colonial powers, particularly in the context of resistance movements and national identity formation. In modern history, it played a crucial role in shaping political discourse, influencing events that led to the unification of groups against foreign domination.
Treaty ports: Treaty ports were coastal cities in China that were opened to foreign trade and residence as a result of various unequal treaties signed in the 19th century. These ports became symbols of Western imperialism, granting foreign powers significant economic and territorial control within China, and laying the groundwork for profound social, political, and economic changes in the country.
National Humiliation: National humiliation refers to the sense of disgrace and loss of sovereignty experienced by a nation, particularly in the context of foreign domination or unequal treaties. In modern Chinese history, this term encapsulates the period where China faced a series of humiliating events, particularly due to Western imperialism and Japan's aggression, leading to significant territorial losses and a profound impact on national identity. The feeling of national humiliation deeply influenced China's political movements and societal sentiments, driving a desire for reform and resistance against foreign powers.
Tongmenghui: The Tongmenghui, or the United League, was a revolutionary organization founded in 1905 in response to the failings of the Qing Dynasty and the impact of foreign imperialism. This group played a crucial role in the push for national reform and the eventual overthrow of the Qing government, advocating for the establishment of a republic based on democratic ideals. Their activities and ideologies significantly influenced political movements in China, especially leading up to the 1911 Revolution.
Most-favored-nation clause: The most-favored-nation clause is a trade provision that ensures a country receives the same trade advantages that other nations offer to each other. This clause was significant in the context of international agreements, particularly in relation to the treaties imposed on China by foreign powers in the 19th century. It played a crucial role in shaping China's economic relations and trade policies, often favoring foreign nations at the expense of China's sovereignty and economic interests.
Zongli Yamen: The Zongli Yamen was the Qing Dynasty's central government body responsible for foreign affairs, established in 1861. It played a critical role in China's interactions with Western powers during the 19th century, particularly in the context of the unequal treaties that significantly affected China and in the efforts to modernize through the Self-Strengthening Movement.
Tariff Autonomy: Tariff autonomy refers to the power of a state to set its own customs duties and trade tariffs without external interference or constraints. This concept is significant in the context of China, particularly regarding the long-term impacts of the Unequal Treaties, which stripped China of this essential economic sovereignty. The loss of tariff autonomy meant that foreign powers imposed their own tariffs on trade, severely undermining China's ability to control its economy and leading to significant financial and political repercussions.
Anti-foreign sentiment: Anti-foreign sentiment refers to the widespread feelings of hostility and resentment towards foreign powers and their influence, particularly in the context of imperialism and colonialism. This sentiment emerged in China during the 19th century as a reaction to foreign encroachments, unequal treaties, and exploitation, particularly after events like the Opium Wars. It was a significant factor in shaping social and political movements aimed at resisting foreign domination and asserting national sovereignty.
Extraterritoriality: Extraterritoriality is a legal practice that allows a country's laws to be applied beyond its borders, enabling foreign nationals to be tried under their home country's laws rather than the local laws where they reside. This concept became significant during interactions between Western powers and China, leading to significant diplomatic tensions and shaping modern Chinese history.
Qing Dynasty: The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, and is known for its significant territorial expansion and cultural flourishing. Established by the Manchu people, it marked a period of both internal consolidation and external challenges, impacting China's trade relations, social structures, and international standing.
Boxer Rebellion: The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign, anti-colonial uprising that took place in China from 1899 to 1901, led by a secret society known as the 'Boxers.' The movement aimed to rid China of foreign influence and Christian missionaries, reflecting the deep resentment against Western imperialism and the social unrest stemming from the long-term impacts of the Unequal Treaties.
Spheres of Influence: Spheres of influence refer to regions or areas where a foreign power exerts significant control or influence over political, economic, and social aspects, without outright annexation. In the context of modern China, these spheres emerged during Western imperialism as foreign powers sought to expand their reach and secure trade interests, leading to significant changes in China's sovereignty and internal dynamics.
Unequal Treaties: Unequal treaties refer to a series of agreements imposed on China by Western powers and Japan in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which were signed under duress and severely favored the foreign nations involved. These treaties resulted in significant territorial losses, economic concessions, and the undermining of China's sovereignty, ultimately reshaping its interactions with the rest of the world.