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History of Modern China
Table of Contents
Unit 1 Overview: Late Qing: China Faces Western Imperialism
1.1 Political and social structure of the Qing Dynasty
1.2 Western imperialism and its impact on China
1.3 The Canton System and early trade relations

Western imperialism in 19th-century China was driven by economic and political motives. Major powers like Britain, France, and the US sought trade advantages, territorial gains, and spheres of influence through wars and unequal treaties.

China's sovereignty was severely impacted by these foreign incursions. Unequal treaties, territorial concessions, and loss of trade control undermined Chinese authority. This led to various responses, from armed resistance to reform movements aimed at modernization.

Western Imperialism in China

Western powers in 19th-century China

  • Great Britain
    • Fought the First Opium War (1839-1842) to force China to accept opium trade and open ports to British merchants
    • Engaged in the Second Opium War (1856-1860) alongside France, resulting in further concessions from China
  • France
    • Participated in the Second Opium War (1856-1860), gaining trade privileges and territorial concessions
    • Waged the Sino-French War (1884-1885) to establish control over Vietnam, a tributary state of China
  • United States
    • Signed the Treaty of Wanghia (1844), securing trade rights and extraterritoriality for American citizens in China
    • Proposed the Open Door Policy (1899) to ensure equal access to Chinese markets for all foreign powers
  • Russia
    • Concluded the Treaty of Aigun (1858), gaining control over the left bank of the Amur River in Northeast China
    • Forced China to sign the Treaty of Beijing (1860), ceding more territories and opening additional ports to Russian trade
  • Germany
    • Acquired the leased territory of Jiaozhou Bay (1898) in Shandong Province, establishing a strategic naval base
  • Japan
    • Defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), gaining control over Korea and Taiwan
    • Issued the Twenty-One Demands (1915) during World War I, seeking to expand its influence in China

Motivations for Western imperialism

  • Economic motivations
    • Sought access to Chinese goods in high demand in the West (tea, silk, and porcelain)
    • Aimed to expand markets for Western manufactured goods, such as textiles and machinery
    • Desired to exploit China's vast natural resources, including minerals and raw materials
  • Political motivations
    • Established spheres of influence to secure exclusive economic and political rights in different regions of China
    • Secured strategic ports and naval bases to project military power and protect commercial interests
    • Aimed to maintain the balance of power among Western nations by preventing any single power from dominating China

Impact on Chinese sovereignty

  • Unequal treaties
    • Forced China to relinquish tariff autonomy, allowing foreign powers to set import and export duties
    • Granted extraterritoriality to foreign nationals, exempting them from Chinese law and jurisdiction
  • Territorial concessions
    • Hong Kong ceded to Britain in perpetuity following the First Opium War (1842)
    • Macau remained under Portuguese control as a trading post and later a colony
    • Foreign powers acquired leased territories, such as Jiaozhou Bay by Germany, for naval bases and trade
  • Spheres of influence
    • Foreign powers divided China into economic and political spheres, each seeking to dominate trade and investment in their respective regions
  • Loss of control over trade
    • Treaty ports opened to foreign trade, undermining Chinese merchants and local industries
    • Foreign concessions established in major cities (Shanghai, Tianjin), operating under foreign administration

Chinese responses to imperialism

  • Resistance
    • Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864): a massive uprising against the Qing Dynasty and foreign influence, resulting in millions of deaths
    • Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901): a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian movement that targeted foreign diplomats, missionaries, and Chinese Christians
    • Anti-foreign sentiment spread among the Chinese population, fueled by resentment over unequal treaties and foreign domination
  • Adaptation
    • Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)
      1. Adopted Western technology and military practices to modernize China's armed forces
      2. Established modern industries, such as arsenals and shipyards, to produce Western-style weapons and equipment
    • Hundred Days' Reform (1898)
      1. Initiated by progressive officials and intellectuals to modernize China's education system, military, and government institutions
      2. Aimed to introduce Western-style reforms and strengthen China against foreign encroachment
    • New Policies (1901-1911)
      1. Implemented following the Boxer Rebellion to accelerate China's modernization and reform efforts
      2. Focused on reforming education, military, and economy to better respond to foreign challenges

Impact of Western Imperialism on China

Examine the economic and political motivations behind Western imperialism in China

  • Economic consequences
    • Influx of cheap foreign goods (textiles, manufactured products) led to the decline of traditional Chinese industries (handicrafts, silk production)
    • Drain of silver from the Chinese economy to pay for opium imports, causing currency instability and inflation
    • Increasing foreign control over key sectors of China's economy (trade, finance, transportation)
  • Political consequences
    • Weakened the authority and legitimacy of the Qing Dynasty, as it failed to effectively resist foreign encroachment
    • Fueled the growth of nationalist and revolutionary movements (Tongmenghui, Kuomintang) seeking to overthrow the Qing and establish a modern nation-state
    • Increased foreign influence in Chinese internal affairs, as foreign powers intervened to protect their interests and advance their agendas

Assess the impact of Western imperialism on China's sovereignty and territorial integrity

  • Challenges to Chinese sovereignty
    • Presence of foreign troops on Chinese soil (legation guards, expeditionary forces) undermined China's ability to maintain order and security
    • Foreign control over Chinese tariffs and trade policies limited China's economic sovereignty and revenue sources
    • Extraterritoriality undermined the Chinese legal system, as foreigners were exempt from Chinese jurisdiction and punishment
  • Territorial losses
    • Cession of Hong Kong to Britain in perpetuity (1842) and the New Territories on a 99-year lease (1898)
    • Establishment of foreign concessions (Shanghai, Tianjin) and leased territories (Jiaozhou Bay, Guangzhouwan) where foreign powers exercised de facto sovereignty
  • Erosion of China's international status
    • China was treated as a semi-colonial nation, subject to the whims and demands of foreign powers
    • China's inability to resist foreign demands and encroachments (unequal treaties, territorial losses) diminished its standing in the international community

Key Terms to Review (33)

Self-Strengthening Movement: The Self-Strengthening Movement was a late 19th-century initiative in China aimed at modernizing the military and economy while maintaining Confucian values. It emerged as a response to the challenges posed by Western imperialism and aimed to adopt Western technology and methods to strengthen China against foreign powers.
New Policies: New Policies refers to a series of reforms introduced in China during the late Qing Dynasty aimed at modernizing the country in response to internal strife and external pressures from Western imperialism. These policies were intended to strengthen the state, improve military capabilities, and revitalize the economy, while also addressing social issues arising from rapid change. They represented a critical moment where traditional systems were challenged and new ideas were introduced to navigate the complexities of a rapidly changing world.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence. In the context of modern China, nationalism played a crucial role in shaping responses to foreign imperialism, domestic reforms, and revolutionary movements, driving the quest for sovereignty and identity among the Chinese people.
Foreign concessions: Foreign concessions were territories in China that were leased to foreign powers, where these powers exercised significant control and authority, typically exempt from Chinese law. These areas emerged during the 19th century, particularly following the Opium Wars, reflecting the broader impacts of Western imperialism on China's sovereignty and its trade dynamics. The establishment of foreign concessions played a critical role in altering China's economic landscape and international relations during this period.
Reformism: Reformism is a political and social ideology advocating for gradual change and improvements within existing systems, rather than through radical upheaval. In the context of modern China, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reformism emerged as a response to Western imperialism, highlighting the need for modernization and adaptation to counter foreign pressures and domestic challenges.
Hundred Days' Reform: The Hundred Days' Reform was a short-lived series of sweeping governmental and educational reforms initiated in China in 1898, aiming to modernize the Qing Dynasty in response to pressures from Western imperialism and internal discontent. This reform movement sought to strengthen China by adopting Western technologies and ideas, transforming society and governance, which were seen as crucial to preserving the dynasty amidst growing foreign influence and domestic unrest.
Century of Humiliation: The Century of Humiliation refers to a period in Chinese history from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century, during which China faced severe foreign intervention, territorial concessions, and a loss of sovereignty. This era is marked by the Qing Dynasty's struggles against Western imperialism and Japanese expansion, leading to significant socio-political changes within China and deeply affecting its international standing and internal politics.
Boxer Rebellion: The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign, anti-colonial uprising that took place in China from 1899 to 1901, led by a secret society known as the 'Boxers.' The movement aimed to rid China of foreign influence and Christian missionaries, reflecting the deep resentment against Western imperialism and the social unrest stemming from the long-term impacts of the Unequal Treaties.
Spheres of Influence: Spheres of influence refer to regions or areas where a foreign power exerts significant control or influence over political, economic, and social aspects, without outright annexation. In the context of modern China, these spheres emerged during Western imperialism as foreign powers sought to expand their reach and secure trade interests, leading to significant changes in China's sovereignty and internal dynamics.
Shanghai: Shanghai is a major city in China, known for its significant role in trade, finance, and culture. Historically, it became a focal point during the period of Western imperialism, where foreign powers established concessions that influenced its development and the larger socio-political landscape of China. This city symbolizes the clash between traditional Chinese society and modernizing influences from the West, making it a crucial site for understanding China's interactions with foreign powers and the resulting changes in its society and governance.
Economic exploitation: Economic exploitation refers to the unfair and unethical treatment of individuals or groups in a way that benefits one party at the expense of another, often through the extraction of resources, labor, or capital without fair compensation. In the context of Western imperialism in China, this concept illustrates how foreign powers took advantage of China's resources and labor, leading to significant economic and social consequences for the Chinese population.
Hong Kong: Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China located on the southern coast, known for its vibrant economy, unique cultural blend, and historical significance as a former British colony. Its status reflects the complex interactions between Western imperialism and Chinese sovereignty, especially following the treaties that shaped its governance and development in the 19th century.
Tianjin: Tianjin is a major port city in northern China, situated on the Bohai Sea. It played a pivotal role during the period of Western imperialism, serving as a gateway for foreign powers to establish their presence in China through treaties and concessions. Its strategic location made it a focal point for international trade and intervention, significantly influencing China's interactions with foreign nations.
Macau: Macau is a Special Administrative Region of China, located on the southern coast, known for its rich history as a Portuguese colony and its significance as a major center for trade and commerce. The city's unique blend of Chinese and Portuguese cultures showcases the impact of colonialism, making it a vital point of interest in understanding Western imperialism's influence on China.
Territorial Concessions: Territorial concessions refer to the surrender of land or territory by a state, usually under pressure or coercion from a more powerful entity. In the context of Western imperialism, these concessions often involved the ceding of strategic ports, trade routes, and other vital areas, which significantly undermined the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the affected nations, particularly China during the 19th century.
Japan: Japan is an island nation in East Asia that played a significant role in the dynamics of Western imperialism and the broader context of international relations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As a rapidly modernizing state, Japan's interactions with China and its response to foreign pressures shaped its own national identity and aspirations, influencing events such as international interventions and military campaigns within Asia.
First Sino-Japanese War: The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) was a conflict between the Qing Dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan, primarily over influence in Korea. This war marked a significant turning point in East Asian geopolitics, highlighting the impact of Western imperialism on China and establishing Japan as a rising power in the region.
Unequal Treaties: Unequal treaties refer to a series of agreements imposed on China by Western powers and Japan in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which were signed under duress and severely favored the foreign nations involved. These treaties resulted in significant territorial losses, economic concessions, and the undermining of China's sovereignty, ultimately reshaping its interactions with the rest of the world.
Twenty-one demands: The twenty-one demands were a set of demands made by Japan to China in January 1915, seeking to expand Japanese control over Chinese territory and resources during a period of political instability. These demands exemplified the aggressive expansion of Japanese imperialism and highlighted China's vulnerability in the wake of Western imperialism, as well as contributing to the discontent that fueled revolutionary movements in China.
Open Door Policy: The Open Door Policy was a diplomatic principle initiated by the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries aimed at ensuring equal trading rights for all nations in China and preventing any single power from monopolizing Chinese trade. This policy emerged as a response to the growing influence of Western imperialism in China and sought to maintain China's territorial integrity while fostering foreign investment and economic development.
Russia: Russia is the largest country in the world, known for its vast geography and diverse history. In the context of modern China, Russia played a significant role as a major imperial power during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influencing China's sovereignty and territorial integrity through military incursions and political agreements. The relationship between Russia and China has been complex, marked by both rivalry and cooperation, particularly during periods of foreign intervention in China.
Treaty of Beijing: The Treaty of Beijing, signed in 1860, was an agreement between the Qing Dynasty of China and the United Kingdom and France, concluding the Second Opium War. This treaty marked a significant moment in the history of Western imperialism in China, as it imposed several concessions and territorial losses on China, further opening the country to foreign influence and trade while diminishing its sovereignty.
Treaty of Aigun: The Treaty of Aigun was a treaty signed in 1858 between the Qing Dynasty of China and the Russian Empire, marking a significant shift in territorial boundaries and establishing Russian control over certain areas in Northeast Asia. This treaty was part of a series of agreements that illustrated the growing impact of Western imperialism on China, as foreign powers exerted their influence and negotiated terms that often favored their interests at the expense of China's sovereignty.
Jiaozhou Bay: Jiaozhou Bay is a deep-water bay located on the southern coast of Shandong Province, China. This strategic waterway became a focal point during the late 19th century due to its significance in maritime trade and military navigation, especially in the context of Western imperialism and the rise of foreign concessions in China. The area became a symbol of foreign domination as it was leased to Germany in 1898, showcasing the broader impact of imperial powers on China's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
France: France was a key player in the age of Western imperialism, notably during the 19th century, and had significant interactions with China. French involvement in China encompassed both economic exploitation and military intervention, reflecting broader trends of imperial expansion. The impact of French actions in China can be seen through treaties that established unequal terms, military conflicts, and efforts to expand influence in East Asia.
Second Opium War: The Second Opium War, fought between 1856 and 1860, was a conflict primarily involving Britain and France against China, sparked by issues related to trade and diplomatic relations. This war marked a significant escalation of Western imperialism in China, leading to the Treaty of Tientsin and the Treaty of Peking, which forced China to cede territory and open more ports to foreign trade. The outcomes of the war highlighted China's vulnerability to foreign powers and set the stage for subsequent internal reform movements, such as the Self-Strengthening Movement.
Germany: Germany is a European nation that played a pivotal role in the age of Western imperialism, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As part of the broader imperialist agenda, Germany sought to expand its influence and territory, leading to significant involvement in international events, including the Boxer Rebellion in China and the subsequent Boxer Protocol. This involvement marked Germany's emergence as a colonial power, affecting its relationships with both China and other Western nations.
First Opium War: The First Opium War (1839-1842) was a conflict between Britain and China that arose primarily due to trade disputes over opium, a narcotic that the British were exporting to China. This war marked a significant moment in Chinese history as it exemplified the impact of Western imperialism, disrupted traditional trade systems, and led to significant territorial and political concessions by China to foreign powers.
Treaty of Wanghia: The Treaty of Wanghia was an 1844 agreement between the United States and Qing China that established formal diplomatic relations and opened Chinese ports to American trade. This treaty marked a significant moment in the context of Western imperialism, as it signaled the beginning of broader foreign influence in China and highlighted the impact of the Canton System, which had previously restricted foreign trade to specific areas.
Sino-French War: The Sino-French War (1884-1885) was a conflict between the Qing Dynasty of China and the French Third Republic, primarily over control of Vietnam, which was then a tributary state of China. This war exemplified the aggressive expansion of Western imperialism in Asia and highlighted China's struggles to maintain sovereignty in the face of foreign encroachment, significantly influencing the course of modernization efforts within China and setting the stage for later conflicts such as the Boxer Rebellion.
United States: The United States is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and a significant global influence, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its relationship with China has evolved through various historical phases, characterized by interactions ranging from trade to military intervention, shaping both nations' trajectories.
Great Britain: Great Britain refers to the largest island in the British Isles, which includes England, Scotland, and Wales. During the 19th century, Great Britain emerged as a major imperial power, exerting significant political, economic, and cultural influence over various regions of the world, including China. Its actions in China during this time were characterized by aggressive trade practices, military intervention, and colonial expansion that profoundly impacted China's sovereignty and development.
Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping Rebellion was a massive civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864 led by Hong Xiuquan, who aimed to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a new order based on his interpretation of Christianity. This rebellion not only challenged the existing political and social structures of the Qing Dynasty but was also a response to the pressures of western imperialism, social unrest, and widespread poverty in China.