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European History – 1945 to Present
Table of Contents
Unit 21 Overview: Yugoslavia's Breakup and the Balkan Wars
21.1 Causes of Yugoslavia's disintegration
21.2 Wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo
21.3 International intervention and peace agreements

The breakup of Yugoslavia sparked a series of brutal conflicts in the Balkans. Croatia and Bosnia saw intense fighting, ethnic cleansing, and atrocities like the Srebrenica massacre. These wars displaced millions and left deep scars across the region.

Kosovo became another flashpoint, with Serbian forces clashing with Albanian separatists. NATO's intervention in 1999 marked a turning point. While peace agreements ended the fighting, ethnic tensions and political challenges continue to shape the post-war Balkans.

Croatian and Bosnian Wars

Origins and Early Conflicts

  • Croatian War of Independence erupted in 1991 when Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia
  • Conflict primarily involved Croatian forces against Serb-controlled Yugoslav People's Army and local Serb forces
  • War lasted until 1995, resulting in significant casualties and displacement of populations
  • Bosnian War began in 1992 following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence
  • Conflict involved Bosnian government forces, Bosnian Serbs, and Bosnian Croats
  • War characterized by complex alliances and shifting allegiances among ethnic groups

Siege of Sarajevo and Major Atrocities

  • Siege of Sarajevo lasted from 1992 to 1996, becoming the longest siege of a capital city in modern history
  • Bosnian Serb forces surrounded Sarajevo, subjecting residents to constant shelling and sniper attacks
  • Civilians faced severe shortages of food, water, and electricity during the siege
  • Srebrenica massacre occurred in July 1995, resulting in the murder of over 8,000 Bosniak men and boys
  • Massacre carried out by Bosnian Serb forces under the command of Ratko Mladić
  • Event recognized as the worst act of genocide in Europe since World War II

Ethnic Cleansing and Humanitarian Crisis

  • Ethnic cleansing emerged as a systematic policy during both Croatian and Bosnian wars
  • Involved forced deportation, murder, and destruction of cultural heritage sites
  • Aimed at creating ethnically homogeneous territories through violent means
  • Resulted in massive refugee crises and internal displacement of populations
  • International community struggled to respond effectively to the humanitarian disaster
  • War crimes tribunals established to prosecute those responsible for atrocities (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia)

Kosovo War

Escalation of Ethnic Tensions

  • Kosovo War began in 1998 as a result of long-standing ethnic tensions between Serbs and Albanians
  • Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) emerged as an Albanian separatist group fighting for independence
  • Serbian forces under Slobodan Milošević launched a brutal crackdown on Kosovo Albanians
  • Conflict intensified with reports of widespread human rights abuses and ethnic cleansing
  • International community became increasingly concerned about the situation in Kosovo

NATO Intervention and Aftermath

  • NATO intervened in March 1999 with a bombing campaign against Serbian military targets
  • Operation Allied Force lasted for 78 days, aiming to force Serbian withdrawal from Kosovo
  • Intervention marked the first time NATO used military force without UN Security Council approval
  • Kosovo declared independence in 2008, though its status remains disputed by Serbia
  • NATO peacekeeping force (KFOR) continues to maintain stability in the region
  • International supervision of Kosovo gradually reduced over time

Humanitarian Impact and International Response

  • Ethnic cleansing in Kosovo resulted in mass displacement of Albanian population
  • Estimated 850,000 Kosovo Albanians fled or were expelled from the region
  • Refugee crisis strained neighboring countries, particularly Albania and Macedonia
  • International aid organizations mobilized to provide humanitarian assistance
  • Post-war reconciliation efforts focused on rebuilding infrastructure and fostering inter-ethnic cooperation
  • Challenges remain in addressing war crimes and promoting sustainable peace in the region

Peace Agreement

Dayton Agreement and Its Provisions

  • Dayton Agreement signed on December 14, 1995, in Paris, ending the Bosnian War
  • Negotiated in Dayton, Ohio, with participation of leaders from Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia
  • Agreement divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into two main entities: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska
  • Established a complex power-sharing system among Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats
  • Created the position of High Representative to oversee implementation of civilian aspects
  • Provided for the deployment of a NATO-led peacekeeping force (IFOR, later SFOR)

Implementation and Long-term Consequences

  • Agreement successfully ended the immediate conflict but left many underlying issues unresolved
  • Power-sharing system often led to political gridlock and ineffective governance
  • Ethnic divisions remained entrenched, hindering reconciliation and national unity
  • Economic recovery hampered by complex administrative structures and corruption
  • Continued presence of international peacekeepers and supervisors in Bosnia
  • Ongoing debates about constitutional reform and the future of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Key Terms to Review (23)

NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance established in 1949, formed primarily for collective defense against aggression. It was created in response to the political and military tensions following World War II, acting as a counterbalance to the Soviet Union and influencing the security dynamics in Europe during the Cold War and beyond.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence or control. It fosters a sense of unity and identity among people who share common traits, such as language, culture, and history, and it often motivates movements for self-determination and independence.
Post-colonial theory: Post-colonial theory is an intellectual framework that analyzes the cultural, political, and economic impacts of colonialism and imperialism on former colonies. It examines how colonized societies navigate identity, power, and representation in a post-colonial context, addressing themes like hybridity, resistance, and the legacy of colonial oppression.
Refugee crisis: A refugee crisis occurs when a large number of people flee their home country due to war, persecution, or natural disasters, seeking safety and asylum in other nations. This situation often leads to overwhelming numbers of displaced individuals in host countries, putting significant strain on resources and services while prompting international responses and policies to address the humanitarian needs of refugees.
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia: The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was a court established by the United Nations in 1993 to prosecute serious crimes committed during the Yugoslav Wars, including genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It played a crucial role in addressing the atrocities that occurred during the conflicts in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo, and set important precedents for international law and justice.
War crimes trials: War crimes trials are legal proceedings held to prosecute individuals for serious violations of international humanitarian law, including genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. These trials aim to deliver justice for victims and promote accountability for perpetrators, particularly in the aftermath of conflicts such as those that occurred in the Balkans during the 1990s.
Operation Storm: Operation Storm was a major military offensive launched by the Croatian Army in August 1995, aimed at reclaiming territories held by Serb forces in Croatia. This operation marked a pivotal moment in the Croatian War of Independence and significantly altered the balance of power in the region, leading to the end of large-scale hostilities in Croatia and contributing to the ongoing conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo.
State-building: State-building refers to the process of constructing or reconstructing a political entity that possesses a defined territory, population, and government. This process often involves establishing institutions, developing governance structures, and fostering national identity, particularly after periods of conflict or instability. In the context of various conflicts, including those in Eastern Europe during the 1990s, state-building was essential for achieving stability and fostering a sense of unity among diverse groups.
Failed state: A failed state is a political entity that has lost the ability to provide basic services, maintain order, and fulfill the responsibilities typically associated with governance. This term often describes countries where government institutions are weak or nonexistent, leading to widespread lawlessness, economic decline, and social fragmentation. The concept is particularly relevant in the context of post-Yugoslav conflicts, where the breakdown of state structures resulted in violence and humanitarian crises.
UN Peacekeeping Forces: UN Peacekeeping Forces are multinational military and civilian units deployed by the United Nations to help maintain peace and security in conflict regions. These forces work under UN mandates to monitor ceasefires, assist in the disarmament of combatants, and support the implementation of peace agreements, particularly in post-conflict environments such as those seen in the Balkans during the wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo.
Operation Allied Force: Operation Allied Force was a NATO-led military campaign conducted from March to June 1999, aimed at stopping human rights abuses and ethnic cleansing in Kosovo during the Kosovo War. The operation involved extensive aerial bombardments against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and was significant in shaping the modern approach to humanitarian intervention by international forces.
Kosovo Liberation Army: The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) was a paramilitary organization formed in the late 1990s that sought the independence of Kosovo from Serbia. The KLA gained international attention during the Kosovo War, where it played a key role in fighting against Serbian forces and advocating for the rights of ethnic Albanians in the region. Its actions and the subsequent NATO intervention were pivotal in shaping the post-war landscape of the Balkans.
Kumanovo Agreement: The Kumanovo Agreement, signed on June 9, 1999, was a crucial peace accord that marked the end of the NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. This agreement facilitated the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo and allowed NATO to deploy peacekeeping troops to maintain stability in the region. It played a significant role in shaping post-war Kosovo and the broader Balkan landscape following years of conflict.
Bosnian War: The Bosnian War was a conflict that took place from 1992 to 1995 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, following the breakup of Yugoslavia. It was marked by ethnic tensions between Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Serbs, and Croats, resulting in widespread violence, atrocities, and the displacement of millions. The war significantly impacted the geopolitical landscape of the Balkans and highlighted issues of nationalism and ethnic identity.
Croatian War of Independence: The Croatian War of Independence was a conflict that occurred from 1991 to 1995, following Croatia's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia. This war was marked by ethnic tensions and violence, primarily between Croats and Serbs, and it played a significant role in the disintegration of Yugoslavia and the rise of new nation-states in the Balkans.
Srebrenica Massacre: The Srebrenica Massacre refers to the systematic killing of more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys by Bosnian Serb forces in July 1995 during the Bosnian War. This tragic event is often cited as one of the most horrific acts of genocide in Europe since World War II and highlights the brutal ethnic conflicts that erupted during this period, particularly in the context of the wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo, as well as the international community's responses to such atrocities.
Siege of Sarajevo: The Siege of Sarajevo was a prolonged military blockade and assault on the capital city of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War from April 5, 1992, to February 29, 1996. This siege is notable for being one of the longest in modern history, resulting in significant civilian suffering and showcasing the complexities of ethnic tensions and conflicts in the region.
Ethnic conflict theory: Ethnic conflict theory is a framework used to understand the causes and dynamics of conflicts arising from ethnic differences, often involving issues of identity, power, and resources. This theory emphasizes how historical grievances, social inequalities, and political exclusion can lead to tensions and violent confrontations among different ethnic groups, particularly in multi-ethnic societies. In the context of recent wars in the Balkans, ethnic conflict theory helps to explain how long-standing ethnic rivalries and nationalist sentiments contributed to the violent disintegration of states like Yugoslavia.
Kosovo War: The Kosovo War was an armed conflict that took place from February 1998 until June 1999 between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) and the Kosovo Albanian rebel group known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The war was marked by ethnic tensions and widespread violence, leading to a significant humanitarian crisis and the eventual intervention of NATO, which resulted in the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo and the establishment of a UN-administered territory.
Ethnic cleansing: Ethnic cleansing refers to the systematic and deliberate removal or extermination of a particular ethnic group from a given territory, often through violent means. This term is particularly relevant in understanding the violent conflicts and wars that took place in the former Yugoslavia during the 1990s, where the disintegration of the state led to brutal campaigns against various ethnic communities, driven by nationalist sentiments and historical grievances.
Dayton Agreement: The Dayton Agreement is a peace agreement reached in 1995 that effectively ended the Bosnian War and established a framework for governance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was crucial in addressing the ethnic divisions and conflicts that arose from the disintegration of Yugoslavia, providing a complex political structure intended to balance power among the country's three main ethnic groups: Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. The agreement marked a significant turning point in the region, as it aimed to restore peace and facilitate reconstruction after years of violent conflict.
Franjo Tuđman: Franjo Tuđman was a Croatian politician and historian who served as the first President of Croatia from 1990 until his death in 1999. He played a crucial role in Croatia's independence from Yugoslavia and was a key figure in shaping the national identity and policies during the turbulent period of the 1990s, which included the disintegration of Yugoslavia and the subsequent wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo.
Slobodan Milošević: Slobodan Milošević was a Serbian politician and leader of the Socialist Party of Serbia who served as the President of Serbia and later the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. His policies and nationalist rhetoric were central to the causes of Yugoslavia's disintegration in the 1990s, directly influencing the violent conflicts in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo, as well as shaping international responses through interventions and peace agreements.