European History – 1890 to 1945 Unit 3 Review: The Outbreak of World War I

Key Players and Alliances

• Triple Alliance formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy as a defensive pact against France and Russia
• Triple Entente established in 1907 as an informal understanding between Britain, France, and Russia to counter the Triple Alliance
• Germany and Austria-Hungary had a strong alliance based on shared cultural ties and mutual defense commitments
  • Germany pledged unconditional support for Austria-Hungary in the event of war with Russia (blank check)
• Russia and Serbia had close ties due to shared Slavic heritage and Russia's role as protector of Slavic nations
• France and Russia formed an alliance in 1894 to counter the growing power of Germany
  • Both nations committed to mutual defense in case of attack by Germany or its allies
• Britain initially pursued a policy of "splendid isolation" but grew concerned about Germany's increasing naval power and global ambitions

Tensions and Rivalries

• Nationalism surged across Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fueling rivalries and territorial disputes
  • Pan-Slavism movement advocated for unity among Slavic peoples, threatening Austria-Hungary's diverse empire
• Imperial ambitions and colonial rivalries heightened tensions, particularly between Germany and Britain
  • Germany sought to expand its overseas empire and naval power, challenging British dominance
• Balkans region was a powder keg of ethnic and nationalist tensions, with competing interests of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Ottoman Empire
• Arms race intensified as nations rapidly expanded their military forces and capabilities
  • Germany's growing army and naval buildup alarmed other European powers
• Economic competition and trade disputes contributed to strained relations among European nations

Immediate Triggers

• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip
  • Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and issued an ultimatum with harsh demands
• Serbia's response to the ultimatum, although largely conciliatory, did not satisfy Austria-Hungary
• Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, setting off a chain reaction of alliances
• Russia, as Serbia's ally and protector, began mobilizing its forces in support of Serbia
• Germany, bound by its alliance with Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914
  • Germany also declared war on France, Russia's ally, on August 3, 1914
• Britain, honoring its commitment to defend Belgium's neutrality, declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914, after Germany invaded Belgium

Mobilization and Declarations of War

• European powers had intricate mobilization plans that, once initiated, were difficult to halt or reverse
  • Mobilization involved calling up reservists, assembling troops, and preparing for war
• Russia's partial mobilization in support of Serbia triggered Germany's mobilization and declarations of war
• France, bound by its alliance with Russia, began mobilizing its forces in response to Germany's actions
• Germany's Schlieffen Plan called for a rapid invasion of France through neutral Belgium before turning to confront Russia
  • Violation of Belgian neutrality drew Britain into the war
• Declarations of war cascaded across Europe as nations honored their alliance commitments
  • Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on August 6, 1914
  • France and Britain declared war on Austria-Hungary on August 12, 1914

Initial Battles and Campaigns

• Germany's Schlieffen Plan aimed to quickly defeat France and then shift forces to the Eastern Front against Russia
  • German forces swept through Belgium and northern France, but were halted at the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914
• Trench warfare developed on the Western Front as armies dug in, leading to a stalemate and war of attrition
  • Battles of Verdun and the Somme in 1916 exemplified the brutal nature of trench warfare
• On the Eastern Front, Russia initially made gains against Austria-Hungary but suffered massive losses against Germany
  • Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 was a decisive German victory over Russian forces
• Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in October 1914, opening new fronts in the Middle East and Caucasus
• Naval warfare played a significant role, with Britain imposing a blockade on Germany and Germany employing submarine warfare

Impact on Civilians

• Millions of civilians were displaced, forced to flee their homes as armies advanced and battles raged
  • Refugees faced hardships such as hunger, disease, and loss of property
• Wartime economies led to shortages of food and essential goods, affecting civilian populations
  • Rationing systems were introduced to manage limited resources
• Governments imposed censorship and propaganda to control information and maintain morale
  • Dissent and anti-war sentiment were often suppressed
• Women took on expanded roles in the workforce and society as men were conscripted into the military
  • Women worked in factories, farms, and various support roles
• Civilians in occupied territories faced harsh treatment, including forced labor, deportation, and violence
  • Atrocities and war crimes were committed against civilian populations

Global Reactions

• Many nations initially remained neutral, but the scale and duration of the war drew them in
  • Italy, initially part of the Triple Alliance, joined the Allies in 1915
  • United States entered the war in 1917 after Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram
• Colonial troops and laborers from European empires were mobilized to support the war effort
  • Indian, African, and Asian soldiers fought on various fronts
• Japan, allied with Britain, seized German colonies in the Pacific and supported the Allied cause
• War had a profound impact on neutral nations, disrupting trade, causing economic hardship, and sparking political tensions
• International organizations, such as the Red Cross, provided humanitarian aid to war-torn regions

Long-Term Consequences

• World War I resulted in millions of military and civilian casualties, with estimates ranging from 15 to 22 million deaths
  • Millions more were wounded, disabled, or psychologically traumatized
• Empires collapsed, including the Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary
  • New nations emerged, redrawing the map of Europe and the Middle East
• Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the establishment of the Soviet Union and the rise of communism
  • Communist ideology spread, influencing political movements worldwide
• Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed harsh terms on Germany, sowing seeds of resentment
  • Germany lost territory, faced reparations, and had its military severely restricted
• League of Nations was established to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars
  • However, it lacked the power to effectively enforce its decisions
• Economic devastation and war debts burdened nations, contributing to the instability of the interwar period
  • Great Depression of the 1930s further exacerbated economic and political challenges
• Technological advancements, such as aircraft, tanks, and chemical weapons, changed the nature of warfare
  • These innovations had lasting impacts on military strategies and tactics