American Literature – 1860 to Present

3.6 Urban literature

Citation:

Urban literature emerged after the Civil War, reflecting rapid urbanization and social changes. It captured diverse experiences of city migrants, especially African Americans seeking new opportunities in growing urban centers.

This genre explores complex social, economic, and cultural dynamics of city life. Urban literature often challenges societal norms and exposes systemic inequalities, giving voice to marginalized communities and their struggles in urban environments.

Origins of urban literature

Urban literature emerged as a distinct genre in American literature, reflecting the rapid urbanization and social changes following the Civil War
This literary movement captured the experiences of diverse populations migrating to cities, particularly African Americans seeking new opportunities

Post-Civil War urbanization

Mass migration to cities transformed American society and literature
Industrial revolution fueled urban growth, creating new social dynamics
Writers began documenting the challenges and opportunities of city life
Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle" exposed harsh conditions in Chicago's meatpacking industry

Early 20th century influences

Muckraking journalism inspired realistic portrayals of urban issues
Naturalism in literature emphasized environmental determinism in city settings
Progressive Era reforms provided context for urban social critique
Theodore Dreiser's "Sister Carrie" explored the allure and dangers of urban life

Harlem Renaissance connections

Cultural movement celebrated African American art and literature in urban settings
Langston Hughes' poetry captured the rhythms and spirit of Harlem
Zora Neale Hurston's works blended rural Southern and urban Northern experiences
The movement laid groundwork for future urban literature exploring racial identity

Themes in urban literature

Urban literature explores the complex social, economic, and cultural dynamics of city life
These works often challenge societal norms and expose systemic inequalities

City life experiences

Captures the fast-paced, diverse nature of urban environments
Explores the anonymity and isolation paradox in crowded cities
Depicts the struggle for survival in competitive urban landscapes
Ralph Ellison's "Invisible Man" portrays the protagonist's journey through various urban spaces

Highlights disparities in wealth, education, and opportunities
Examines racial segregation and its impact on urban communities
Explores class tensions and the challenges of social mobility
James Baldwin's "Go Tell It on the Mountain" addresses poverty and racial injustice in Harlem

Cultural identity

Investigates the formation of identity in multicultural urban settings
Explores the tension between assimilation and maintaining cultural heritage
Examines the impact of urban subcultures on individual and group identities
Piri Thomas's "Down These Mean Streets" delves into Puerto Rican identity in Spanish Harlem

Crime and violence

Depicts the realities of urban crime and its root causes
Explores the impact of systemic violence on communities
Examines the moral complexities of survival in harsh urban environments
Chester Himes's Harlem Detective series portrays crime and police work in 1950s Harlem

Key authors and works

Urban literature has been shaped by diverse voices capturing city experiences
These authors have contributed significantly to the genre's development and recognition

Chester Himes

Pioneered hard-boiled detective fiction set in Harlem
"A Rage in Harlem" introduced iconic detectives Coffin Ed Johnson and Grave Digger Jones
His works blend social commentary with noir-style storytelling
Himes's personal experiences with racism and incarceration informed his urban narratives

Ann Petry

First African American woman to sell over a million copies of a novel
"The Street" (1946) explores a single mother's struggles in Harlem
Her work emphasizes the intersection of race, gender, and class in urban settings
Petry's realistic portrayal of urban life challenged stereotypes and exposed systemic issues

James Baldwin

Explored themes of race, sexuality, and identity in urban contexts
"Another Country" (1962) examines interracial relationships in New York City
His essays, including "Notes of a Native Son," provide critical insights into urban racial dynamics
Baldwin's work bridges the gap between the Harlem Renaissance and the Civil Rights Movement

Richard Wright

"Native Son" (1940) became a landmark in urban African American literature
Explored the psychological impact of racism and poverty on urban youth
His autobiographical work "Black Boy" details his journey from the rural South to urban Chicago
Wright's naturalistic style influenced subsequent generations of urban writers

Literary techniques

Urban literature employs specific techniques to capture the essence of city life
These stylistic choices enhance the authenticity and impact of urban narratives

Vernacular language

Incorporates urban dialects and slang to reflect authentic speech patterns
Uses code-switching to illustrate characters' navigation of different social contexts
Employs rhythmic language influenced by jazz, blues, and later hip-hop
Zora Neale Hurston's use of African American Vernacular English in "Their Eyes Were Watching God"

Gritty realism

Depicts harsh urban realities without romanticization
Uses vivid, sensory details to immerse readers in urban environments
Explores taboo subjects and social issues with unflinching honesty
Hubert Selby Jr.'s "Last Exit to Brooklyn" exemplifies this raw, unfiltered approach

Stream of consciousness

Reflects the chaotic, fragmented nature of urban experiences
Allows deep exploration of characters' inner thoughts and perceptions
Captures the sensory overload and rapid pace of city life
Ralph Ellison's use of this technique in "Invisible Man" to convey the protagonist's psychological state

Symbolism of urban spaces

Uses city landmarks and neighborhoods as metaphors for social conditions
Explores the contrast between public facades and hidden urban realities
Employs urban infrastructure (subways, tenements) as symbols of societal structures
Colson Whitehead's "The Intuitionist" uses elevator inspectors as a metaphor for racial progress

Urban literature vs rural literature

Urban and rural literature offer contrasting perspectives on American life
These genres reflect the divide between city and country experiences in American culture

Setting as character

Urban literature often personifies the city, making it a central force in the narrative
Rural literature emphasizes the relationship between characters and natural landscapes
City settings in urban lit provide constant stimuli and conflict
Rural settings in country lit often represent tradition, simplicity, or isolation

Pace and rhythm

Urban literature reflects the fast-paced, often chaotic rhythm of city life
Rural literature tends to have a slower, more contemplative pace
Short sentences and rapid dialogue characterize urban narratives
Longer, descriptive passages are more common in rural literature

Urban lit explores diverse, often conflicting social interactions in close quarters
Rural lit focuses on tight-knit communities and generational ties
Class and racial tensions are more prominently featured in urban literature
Rural literature often examines the tension between tradition and progress

Nature's role

In urban lit, nature is often absent or exists in controlled spaces (parks)
Rural lit emphasizes the omnipresence of nature and its impact on human lives
Urban narratives may use nature as a contrast to city life or escape
Rural stories often depict nature as both nurturing and challenging

Subgenres and movements

Urban literature has spawned various subgenres reflecting specific experiences
These movements often intersect with other cultural forms and social trends

Street lit

Emerged in the 1990s, focusing on inner-city experiences
Often self-published or distributed through alternative channels
Explores themes of crime, survival, and urban youth culture
Sister Souljah's "The Coldest Winter Ever" popularized the genre

Hip-hop literature

Blends literary techniques with hip-hop culture and aesthetics
Often incorporates poetic forms like spoken word and rap
Explores themes of urban identity, resistance, and creativity
Paul Beatty's "The White Boy Shuffle" exemplifies the genre's satirical edge

Neo-noir fiction

Updates classic noir themes for contemporary urban settings
Explores moral ambiguity and corruption in city environments
Often features detectives or journalists uncovering urban conspiracies
Walter Mosley's Easy Rawlins series set in post-World War II Los Angeles

Cultural impact

Urban literature has significantly influenced American culture and society
The genre has expanded representation and challenged mainstream narratives

Representation in media

Urban lit has inspired film and television adaptations (The Wire)
Increased visibility of diverse urban experiences in popular media
Influenced the development of urban-focused journalism and documentaries
Spike Lee's films often draw from urban literary themes and styles

Influence on popular culture

Urban slang and dialects from literature have entered mainstream language
Fashion and style depicted in urban lit have influenced broader trends
Music, especially hip-hop, often references urban literary works and themes
Urban lit has shaped perceptions of city life for both urban and non-urban readers

Academic recognition

Urban literature courses now common in university English departments
Scholarly analysis of urban lit has expanded the canon of American literature
Interdisciplinary studies combine urban lit with sociology, history, and urban planning
Toni Morrison's work on the urban experience has received critical acclaim and a Nobel Prize

Contemporary urban literature

Modern urban literature continues to evolve, reflecting changing city dynamics
Digital technology and globalization have influenced both content and form

Multicultural perspectives

Increased representation of diverse immigrant experiences in urban settings
Exploration of intersectionality in urban identities (race, gender, sexuality)
Junot Díaz's "The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao" blends Dominican and American urban experiences
Examines the complexities of cultural hybridity in global cities

Gentrification narratives

Explores the impact of urban renewal on established communities
Examines tensions between long-time residents and newcomers
Investigates themes of displacement, cultural erasure, and urban identity
Colson Whitehead's "Harlem Shuffle" depicts changing neighborhood dynamics over time

Digital age influences

Incorporates social media and digital communication into urban narratives
Explores the impact of technology on urban social interactions and relationships
Examines the digital divide and its effects on urban communities
Jennifer Egan's "A Visit from the Goon Squad" uses innovative formats to depict tech-influenced urban life

Criticism and controversies

Urban literature has faced various critiques and debates throughout its development
These discussions reflect broader societal tensions and literary debates

Stereotyping concerns

Critics argue some works reinforce negative stereotypes of urban communities
Debate over the responsibility of authors to present balanced portrayals
Concerns about the potential exploitation of urban experiences for entertainment
Discussions on the fine line between authentic representation and stereotyping

Authenticity debates

Questions arise about who has the right to tell urban stories
Examines the role of lived experience versus research in urban narratives
Debates over the commodification of urban experiences by mainstream publishers
Considerations of how language use and cultural references signal authenticity

Literary merit discussions

Some critics question the literary value of certain urban literature works
Debates over the balance between social commentary and artistic craft
Examines the role of popular appeal versus critical acclaim in evaluating urban lit
Discussions on expanding literary canons to include diverse urban voices

Key Terms to Review (41)

Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of major industrialization and technological advancement that began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, drastically transforming economies, societies, and cultures. This revolution brought about significant changes in production methods, leading to urbanization, shifts in labor dynamics, and new social classes, which all influenced various literary movements and themes.

Multicultural perspectives: Multicultural perspectives refer to the various ways in which different cultural identities, experiences, and values are represented and understood within a society. These perspectives highlight the importance of recognizing and valuing diversity, encouraging an appreciation of the unique contributions that various cultures make to the social fabric. In literature, multicultural perspectives often illuminate the voices of marginalized groups, offering insights into their lived experiences and challenging dominant narratives.

Representation in media: Representation in media refers to the way in which various groups, ideas, and issues are depicted in different forms of media, such as literature, film, television, and digital platforms. This term emphasizes the importance of how identities, cultures, and experiences are portrayed, affecting public perception and societal attitudes. Accurate representation can empower marginalized voices, while misrepresentation can perpetuate stereotypes and biases.

Neo-noir fiction: Neo-noir fiction is a contemporary genre that revives and updates the themes, style, and visual aesthetics of classic film noir and hardboiled detective fiction. It often incorporates modern societal issues, complex characters, and moral ambiguity, reflecting the uncertainties of modern life. The genre can be characterized by its exploration of urban settings, emphasizing the psychological and emotional states of its characters amidst gritty environments.

Hip-hop literature: Hip-hop literature is a form of literary expression that draws inspiration from hip-hop culture, incorporating its language, themes, and artistic styles. This genre often reflects the experiences and struggles of urban communities, using poetry, narrative, and spoken word to explore issues such as identity, social justice, and resistance. By blending traditional literary forms with the rhythms and motifs of hip-hop, this literature serves as a powerful voice for marginalized perspectives.

Symbolism of urban spaces: The symbolism of urban spaces refers to the representation and meaning assigned to different aspects of city life, where physical locations and structures carry deeper social, cultural, and emotional significance. In literature, urban settings often reflect themes like alienation, opportunity, decay, and community, serving as a backdrop that shapes characters' experiences and societal interactions. This symbolism can highlight contrasts between urban and rural life, evoke nostalgia or critique modernity, and explore the complexity of human relationships within city environments.

Street lit: Street lit is a genre of urban literature that focuses on the lives, struggles, and experiences of individuals living in inner-city neighborhoods. This literary form often highlights themes such as crime, poverty, resilience, and the complexities of urban life, offering a raw and unfiltered glimpse into the realities faced by many marginalized communities. Street lit is characterized by its accessibility, authenticity, and often gritty style, resonating with readers who seek relatable narratives that reflect their own experiences or those of their surroundings.

Native Son: Native Son is a novel by Richard Wright published in 1940 that tells the story of Bigger Thomas, an African American man living in 1930s Chicago. The novel explores themes of systemic racism, poverty, and the psychological impact of societal oppression on individuals, ultimately presenting a harrowing portrait of urban life and racial injustice in America.

The street: The street refers to the public thoroughfare that serves as a space for social interaction, economic activity, and cultural expression in urban environments. This term encapsulates the essence of urban literature, often depicting the street as a microcosm of society, reflecting its complexities, struggles, and vibrancy.

Black boy: The term 'black boy' often refers to Richard Wright's autobiographical work that details his experiences growing up in the Jim Crow South. This powerful narrative provides insight into the struggles of race, identity, and oppression faced by African Americans in urban settings, reflecting broader themes of urban literature such as social injustice, poverty, and the quest for self-identity in a challenging environment.

A Rage in Harlem: A Rage in Harlem is a 1965 novel by Chester Himes that centers on the struggles of African Americans living in Harlem during the 1960s. The narrative combines elements of crime, social commentary, and dark humor to depict the harsh realities and systemic injustices faced by the community, reflecting broader themes of urban life and racial tension.

Down these mean streets: 'Down These Mean Streets' is a semi-autobiographical work by Piri Thomas that explores the experiences of a Puerto Rican youth growing up in the Spanish Harlem neighborhood of New York City during the 1940s and 1950s. This narrative vividly portrays the struggles of identity, race, and poverty, offering a lens into urban life and the complexities of navigating through a challenging environment shaped by social and economic factors.

Chester Himes: Chester Himes was an influential African American novelist and writer known for his gritty depictions of urban life, particularly in the context of crime and racial tensions. His works often reflect the struggles of Black characters in a racially divided society and contribute significantly to the genre of urban literature, showcasing the realities of life in American cities during the mid-20th century.

Go Tell It on the Mountain: Go Tell It on the Mountain is a semi-autobiographical novel by James Baldwin that explores themes of religion, identity, and social injustice in the context of African American life in urban America during the early 20th century. The narrative follows the experiences of a young boy named John Grimes as he navigates the complexities of family dynamics, faith, and self-discovery in a Harlem setting, highlighting the impact of both personal and societal struggles on individual identity.

Urban literature: Urban literature refers to a genre of writing that captures the experiences, struggles, and realities of life in urban environments. It often explores themes such as social inequality, cultural diversity, and the complexities of city living, reflecting both the vibrancy and the challenges of metropolitan life.

The Atlantic Monthly: The Atlantic Monthly, often simply referred to as The Atlantic, is an American magazine founded in 1857 that covers various topics including politics, culture, and the arts. It played a crucial role in shaping urban literature by providing a platform for writers to discuss contemporary issues and explore the complexities of life in urban settings, reflecting the social and cultural dynamics of American cities.

Gentrification: Gentrification is the process where urban neighborhoods undergo transformation due to an influx of more affluent residents, leading to rising property values and rents. This often displaces long-time, lower-income residents and alters the cultural and social fabric of the community. Gentrification is closely tied to urban development and revitalization efforts, which can lead to both positive economic growth and negative social consequences.

Harper's Weekly: Harper's Weekly was a prominent American magazine published from 1857 to 1916, known for its detailed illustrations, political commentary, and coverage of significant events. It played a crucial role in shaping public opinion during the Civil War and the Reconstruction era, offering readers visual depictions of urban life and societal issues prevalent during that time.

Piri Thomas: Piri Thomas was a Puerto Rican author and poet best known for his autobiographical novel 'Down These Mean Streets,' which explores themes of identity, race, and urban life in mid-20th century America. His works highlight the struggles of growing up in a marginalized community, reflecting the complexities of urban existence and the impact of social issues on personal development.

Invisible Man: Invisible Man is a novel by Ralph Ellison that explores the African American experience and identity in the early 20th century. It tells the story of a nameless protagonist who feels marginalized and unseen in a racially divided society, reflecting broader themes of race, individuality, and social invisibility. The narrative navigates urban landscapes, emphasizing the protagonist's struggle against societal norms and expectations.

Ralph Ellison: Ralph Ellison was an influential African American novelist, essayist, and scholar best known for his novel 'Invisible Man,' published in 1952. His work explores themes of identity, race, and the complexities of the African American experience in the United States, reflecting the struggles faced by individuals in a society marked by systemic racism. Ellison's writings significantly contributed to both African American literature and the broader landscape of urban literature.

Ann Petry: Ann Petry was an influential African American author and a prominent figure in urban literature, best known for her groundbreaking novel 'The Street' published in 1946. Her work often focused on the struggles and experiences of African Americans, especially women, in urban settings, making significant contributions to both African American literature and the exploration of urban life.

Walt Whitman: Walt Whitman was a groundbreaking American poet, essayist, and journalist, known for his innovative use of free verse and his celebration of the individual and the collective experience of humanity. His work has influenced various literary movements and themes, including experimental poetry forms, urban literature, and the representation of LGBTQ+ identities, making him a pivotal figure in American literature.

Richard Wright: Richard Wright was an influential African American author, born in 1908, known for his impactful works exploring racial issues in America. His writing, particularly in 'Native Son' and 'Black Boy', delves into the complexities of urban life, systemic racism, and the struggles faced by African Americans, making him a pivotal figure in 20th-century American literature.

James Baldwin: James Baldwin was an influential American writer and social critic, known for his essays, novels, and plays that explore complex themes of race, sexuality, and identity. His work is a powerful reflection on the African American experience and addresses the struggles faced by LGBTQ+ individuals, making him a pivotal figure in both civil rights and LGBTQ+ literature.

Urbanization: Urbanization refers to the increasing population concentration in urban areas, transforming rural societies into urban ones. This process has significant impacts on social structures, economies, and cultural dynamics, particularly in the context of rapid industrial growth and modernization. Urbanization reflects broader themes of societal change, including the rise of cities as centers of culture and industry, which influences various literary movements and genres.

Great Migration: The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West between the 1910s and 1970s. This movement significantly impacted the cultural landscape of America, influencing various artistic movements, the civil rights movement, and literature by giving voice to the experiences of those who sought better opportunities and escape from systemic racism.

Zora Neale Hurston: Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent African American author and anthropologist known for her contributions to literature during the Harlem Renaissance. She is celebrated for her rich storytelling and her deep exploration of African American culture, especially through her vivid depictions of Southern life and folklore. Her work helped shape the narrative of African American literature, particularly in its authentic representation of Black voices and experiences.

Langston Hughes: Langston Hughes was a prominent African American poet, social activist, novelist, and playwright known for his central role in the Harlem Renaissance. His work celebrated black culture and identity, often reflecting the struggles of African Americans and their contributions to American society, while also embracing jazz and blues rhythms in his poetry.

Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic movement that emerged in the early 20th century, centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, celebrating African American culture and identity. This movement marked a pivotal time for African American artists, writers, and musicians to express their experiences, challenges, and hopes through their work. The Harlem Renaissance is deeply connected to the evolution of African American literature, urban narratives, and civil rights discourse, leaving a lasting impact on American culture and society.

Vernacular language: Vernacular language refers to the everyday speech and dialect used by a particular group of people, often contrasting with formal or literary language. It reflects the cultural identity and social dynamics of its speakers, making it a vital tool for expressing local customs, values, and experiences. This type of language captures the unique sounds, expressions, and idioms that characterize a community, allowing writers to convey authenticity and relatability in their works.

Alienation: Alienation refers to the feeling of estrangement or disconnection that individuals experience in society, often resulting from social, political, or cultural circumstances. This sense of isolation can manifest in various forms, including emotional detachment from one’s surroundings, a lack of belonging, or a disconnection from one’s own identity. The concept is particularly significant in modern literature, where authors explore the complexities of individual existence in an increasingly fragmented world.

Stream of consciousness: Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique that attempts to capture the flow of thoughts, feelings, and sensory experiences of characters as they occur in real time. This style often reflects the inner workings of the mind and emphasizes a subjective perspective, allowing readers to experience characters' thoughts in a direct and often fragmented manner.

Modernism: Modernism is a cultural movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a deliberate break from traditional forms and an exploration of new techniques and ideas in art, literature, and philosophy. This movement reflects the complexities of a rapidly changing world, often questioning established norms and conventions, which connects deeply with various literary styles and thematic explorations.

Class struggle: Class struggle refers to the ongoing conflict between different social classes, primarily between the working class and the ruling class, as they compete for resources, power, and control over society. This struggle is often depicted in literature as a reflection of societal inequalities and the impact of economic conditions on people's lives, highlighting themes of injustice and resistance.

Naturalism: Naturalism is a literary movement that emerged in the late 19th century, emphasizing the influence of environment, heredity, and social conditions on human behavior. It builds on realism but goes further by suggesting that individuals are often shaped by forces beyond their control, reflecting a deterministic view of life.

Realism: Realism is a literary movement that emerged in the mid-19th century, focusing on representing everyday life and ordinary people with an emphasis on accuracy and detail. This movement sought to depict life as it truly is, often highlighting social issues and the complexities of human behavior.

The Jungle: The Jungle is a novel by Upton Sinclair, published in 1906, that exposes the harsh conditions and exploitation of immigrant workers in the American meatpacking industry. The book is a stark representation of social realism, detailing the struggles of laborers and highlighting the severe impact of industrialization and urbanization on society, particularly the working class.

Sister Carrie: Sister Carrie is a novel written by Theodore Dreiser, published in 1900, which follows the life of Carrie Meeber, a young woman who moves to Chicago in search of a better life. The story illustrates the struggles of urban life and highlights themes of ambition, desire, and the impact of society on individual choices, making it a pivotal work in naturalism and social realism.

Theodore Dreiser: Theodore Dreiser was an American novelist and journalist, known for his role in developing naturalism in literature during the early 20th century. His works often explore the influence of environment and heredity on human behavior, reflecting themes of social realism and determinism. Dreiser’s depiction of urban life and the struggles of individuals against societal forces make him a key figure in understanding the impact of industrialization and urbanization on American literature.

Gritty realism: Gritty realism refers to a literary style characterized by a stark, unembellished portrayal of life, emphasizing the harsh realities and struggles of everyday existence. This approach often features intense emotions, vivid imagery, and a focus on the darker aspects of human experience, making it especially relevant in narratives that explore the complexities of urban life and social issues.

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🏜️american literature – 1860 to present review