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History of Africa – 1800 to Present
Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Colonization and the Scramble for Africa
2.1 Early European Presence in Africa
2.2 The Berlin Conference and the Partition of Africa
2.3 Colonial Administration and Policies
2.4 African Resistance to Colonial Rule

European powers first ventured into Africa seeking trade routes and luxury goods. Portugal led the charge, establishing coastal trading posts in the 15th century. This early presence set the stage for centuries of European involvement and exploitation in Africa.

As exploration expanded, so did European motivations. The spread of Christianity, pursuit of resources like gold, and demand for slave labor in the Americas drove further colonization. These factors shaped the complex and often devastating impact of European presence on African societies.

Motivations for European Exploration in Africa

The Pursuit of Trade Routes and Luxury Goods

  • Early European exploration of Africa was driven by a desire for new trade routes to Asia, particularly for spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves) and other luxury goods (silk, porcelain)
  • The Portuguese were the first to establish a presence in Africa in the 15th century, setting up trading posts along the West African coast (Elmina Castle, São Jorge da Mina)
  • The discovery of a sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama in 1498 further intensified European interest in Africa as a strategic waypoint

The Spread of Christianity and Religious Motivations

  • European powers were also motivated by a desire to spread Christianity to African societies
  • Missionaries often accompanied explorers and traders, seeking to convert Africans to Christianity
  • The Portuguese sent Catholic missionaries to the Kingdom of Kongo in the late 15th century, leading to the conversion of the Kongolese king Nzinga a Nkuwu to Christianity
  • The Spanish also sent missionaries to the Canary Islands in the 15th century, seeking to convert the indigenous Guanche people

The Pursuit of African Resources and Wealth

  • The discovery of gold and other precious metals in Africa further fueled European interest in the continent
  • Europeans sought to control the sources of these valuable resources and profit from their extraction and trade
  • The Portuguese established a trading post at Elmina in 1482 to access the gold mines of the Akan people in present-day Ghana
  • The Dutch, English, and French also established trading posts along the West African coast (Dutch Gold Coast, British Gold Coast, French Ivory Coast) to participate in the gold trade

The Demand for Slave Labor in the Americas

  • European powers also saw Africa as a potential source of slave labor for their colonies in the Americas
  • The Atlantic slave trade became a major motivation for European involvement in Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries
  • The Portuguese were the first to engage in the Atlantic slave trade, transporting African slaves to their colonies in Brazil and the Caribbean
  • The Spanish, Dutch, English, and French also participated in the slave trade, with the British becoming the dominant slave-trading nation by the 18th century

Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa

Demographic and Social Consequences

  • The Atlantic slave trade resulted in the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas, with estimates ranging from 10 to 12 million people over the course of the trade
  • This massive depopulation had significant demographic and social consequences for African societies, particularly in West and Central Africa
  • The slave trade disrupted traditional African social structures and family units, as individuals were forcibly removed from their communities
  • This led to a breakdown of social cohesion and stability in many African societies, as well as a gender imbalance due to the disproportionate enslavement of men

Increased Warfare and Political Instability

  • The demand for slaves led to increased warfare and raids among African societies, as rival groups sought to capture and sell their enemies into slavery
  • This exacerbated existing conflicts and created new ones, leading to a cycle of violence and instability
  • The slave trade also contributed to the rise of powerful African states (Oyo Empire, Asante Empire, Dahomey) that engaged in slave raiding and trading as a means of expanding their power and wealth
  • However, the slave trade also undermined the long-term stability and development of these states by fostering a reliance on slave raiding and trading at the expense of other economic activities

Economic Disruption and Dependency

  • While some African elites profited from the slave trade by acting as middlemen or selling slaves themselves, the overall effect was to drain African societies of valuable human resources and disrupt traditional economic activities (agriculture, crafts)
  • The influx of European manufactured goods, particularly guns, in exchange for slaves also altered African economies and power dynamics
  • African leaders who had access to European weapons were able to expand their power and influence at the expense of those who did not, leading to a shift in the balance of power
  • The slave trade also fostered a dependency on European trade and manufactured goods, which undermined the development of indigenous African industries and technologies

European Powers in Early Colonial Africa

Portuguese Exploration and Colonization

  • Portugal was the first European power to establish a significant presence in Africa, setting up trading posts along the West African coast in the 15th century (Elmina Castle, São Jorge da Mina)
  • Portuguese explorers such as Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama also made important discoveries that opened up new trade routes to Asia (rounding the Cape of Good Hope)
  • Portugal established colonies in present-day Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau, as well as on the islands of Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe
  • Portuguese colonization was characterized by a focus on trade and resource extraction, particularly in gold, ivory, and slaves

Dutch Involvement in the African Slave Trade

  • The Dutch became involved in the African slave trade in the 17th century, setting up trading posts along the West African coast (Dutch Gold Coast) and supplying slaves to their colonies in the Americas (Dutch Brazil, Dutch Guiana)
  • The Dutch West India Company played a key role in this trade, establishing a monopoly on the Dutch slave trade and operating a network of slave forts and trading posts in West Africa
  • The Dutch also challenged Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean trade, establishing a colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 as a stopover for ships traveling to and from the Dutch East Indies

British Commercial and Colonial Interests

  • The British became increasingly involved in Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly through the activities of the Royal African Company
  • British traders and explorers such as Mungo Park helped to map the interior of West Africa and expand British commercial interests in the region
  • The British established a network of slave forts and trading posts along the West African coast (British Gold Coast), as well as a colony in Sierra Leone for freed slaves
  • British colonization in Africa expanded significantly in the 19th century, with the establishment of colonies in South Africa, East Africa (Kenya, Uganda), and West Africa (Nigeria, Ghana)

French Presence in West Africa

  • France had colonial ambitions in Africa, particularly in the Senegal and Gambia regions of West Africa
  • French traders and missionaries established a presence in these areas in the 17th and 18th centuries, setting up trading posts and missions (Saint-Louis, Gorée Island)
  • France also established a colony in Algeria in 1830, which became a major center of French colonial power in North Africa
  • French colonization in West Africa expanded significantly in the late 19th century, with the establishment of colonies in Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Dahomey (Benin)

Missionaries and Colonial Expansion in Africa

The Role of Missionaries in Spreading European Culture

  • Christian missionaries played a significant role in the early stages of European colonial expansion in Africa
  • Missionaries often accompanied explorers and traders, seeking to spread Christianity to African societies
  • Missionaries established schools, hospitals, and other institutions in African communities, which helped to spread European culture and values
  • These institutions also served as a means of cultural imperialism, as they sought to replace traditional African beliefs and practices with European ones (Christianity, Western education)

Missionaries as Intermediaries and Facilitators of Colonization

  • Missionaries often acted as intermediaries between African societies and European powers
  • They provided valuable information about African cultures, languages, and geography to colonial authorities, which helped to facilitate colonial expansion
  • Missionaries also played a role in negotiating treaties and agreements between African leaders and European powers, often to the detriment of African interests
  • Some missionaries also served as advisors and administrators in colonial governments, using their knowledge of African societies to help maintain colonial control

The Complex Legacy of Missionary Activity in Africa

  • Some missionaries played a role in advocating for the abolition of the slave trade and the protection of African rights, such as the British missionary David Livingstone
  • However, these efforts were often paternalistic in nature and did not challenge the fundamental assumptions of European superiority and African inferiority that underpinned colonialism
  • The spread of Christianity in Africa also had the effect of dividing African societies along religious lines, as some groups embraced the new religion while others resisted it
  • This religious divide was often exploited by colonial powers to further their own interests and maintain control over African populations (divide and rule tactics)
  • The legacy of missionary activity in Africa is thus a complex one, with both positive and negative consequences for African societies and cultures

Key Terms to Review (35)

Sierra Leone: Sierra Leone is a country located on the west coast of Africa, known for its rich history as a site for early European trading and later as a colony established for freed slaves. Its historical significance is tied to early European exploration, the effects of the Berlin Conference in shaping colonial territories, and its struggles with political instability and military coups in the post-colonial period.
Royal African Company: The Royal African Company was a trading company established in 1660 by the English to exploit trade in West Africa, particularly in gold and enslaved people. It played a critical role in the early European presence in Africa, as it facilitated the growth of the transatlantic slave trade and established trading posts along the coast of West Africa, connecting Europe with the burgeoning plantation economies in the Americas.
Dutch West India Company: The Dutch West India Company was a chartered company of Dutch merchants established in 1621, primarily to facilitate trade and colonization in the Americas and West Africa. This company played a significant role in the early European presence in Africa by establishing trading posts and engaging in the transatlantic slave trade, which laid the groundwork for Dutch colonial activities in the region.
Guinea-Bissau: Guinea-Bissau is a West African country located on the Atlantic coast, bordered by Senegal to the north and Guinea to the south and east. This nation became significant during the early European presence in Africa due to its strategic location for trade, particularly in the transatlantic slave trade, and its rich resources, such as cashew nuts and tropical timber, which attracted European colonial interests.
Cape Verde: Cape Verde is an archipelago located in the central Atlantic Ocean, consisting of 10 volcanic islands. It became an important stop for European maritime trade and exploration, especially during the age of European expansion and colonialism, highlighting its role in the early European presence in Africa.
São Tomé and Príncipe: São Tomé and Príncipe is an island nation located in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western coast of Central Africa. It was one of the earliest locations for European colonization in Africa, initially settled by the Portuguese in the late 15th century, and became significant for its role in the sugar trade and later cocoa production. The islands serve as a prime example of early European presence in Africa, showcasing the interactions between colonizers and local populations as well as the economic exploitation that ensued.
Dahomey: Dahomey was a powerful kingdom located in present-day Benin, West Africa, known for its military prowess and rich culture. Established in the 17th century, it became a significant player in the transatlantic slave trade, providing enslaved individuals to European traders and establishing strong economic ties with them. The kingdom's unique political and social structures contributed to its influence and ability to maintain autonomy during early European presence in Africa.
Mozambique: Mozambique is a country located on the southeastern coast of Africa, bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east. It has a rich history that includes early interactions with European traders and explorers during the Age of Exploration, which led to significant cultural exchanges and the eventual establishment of Portuguese colonial rule.
Asante Empire: The Asante Empire was a powerful West African state that emerged in the late 17th century, known for its wealth, military strength, and complex political organization. It played a crucial role in regional trade, particularly in gold and slaves, and was significantly affected by early European presence through trade relationships and conflicts with European powers.
Oyo Empire: The Oyo Empire was a powerful Yoruba state located in present-day southwestern Nigeria, known for its complex political structure and economic prosperity from the 17th to the 19th century. It played a crucial role in regional trade networks and interactions with early European powers, which influenced its development and expansion during the early European presence in Africa.
Dutch Gold Coast: The Dutch Gold Coast refers to the region along the coast of present-day Ghana that was controlled by the Dutch from the late 16th century until the late 19th century. This area became a significant site for trade, particularly in gold and later in enslaved people, and it played an important role in the early European presence in Africa, showcasing both the economic ambitions and colonial endeavors of European powers during this period.
French Ivory Coast: The French Ivory Coast, known as Côte d'Ivoire, was a French colony established in the late 19th century and became a significant part of French West Africa. It served as a crucial point for trade, agriculture, and the export of ivory and other resources, reflecting the broader patterns of early European presence in Africa during the colonial era.
São Jorge da Mina: São Jorge da Mina, also known as Elmina, is a historic coastal town in present-day Ghana that became a key site for European trade and colonization in West Africa, particularly during the 15th to 17th centuries. Established by the Portuguese in 1482, it was significant for its gold trade and later became central to the transatlantic slave trade, highlighting the early European presence in Africa and the consequences of colonization.
British Gold Coast: The British Gold Coast was a British colony located on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, known for its significant role in the transatlantic slave trade and later as a key site for the production of cocoa and gold. Established as a trading post in the 17th century, it became a crown colony in 1874, reflecting early European ambitions to exploit the region's resources and engage with local powers.
Nzinga a Nkuwu: Nzinga a Nkuwu, also known as King Afonso I of Kongo, was a prominent ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo in the early 16th century. His reign marked a significant period of interaction between the Kongo Kingdom and European powers, particularly the Portuguese, as he sought to expand his kingdom's influence while navigating the challenges of European colonization and the slave trade.
Civilizing Mission: The civilizing mission refers to the belief and justification used by European powers during the 19th and early 20th centuries that they had a duty to 'civilize' non-European peoples, particularly in Africa. This ideology was rooted in notions of racial superiority and often framed colonization as a benevolent act, intending to bring Western education, religion, and culture to indigenous populations, while often ignoring and undermining local traditions and systems.
Elmina Castle: Elmina Castle is a historic fortress located on the coast of Ghana, built by the Portuguese in 1482 as a trading post for gold and later became a central hub for the transatlantic slave trade. This castle exemplifies the early European presence in Africa, marking a significant shift in the dynamics of trade and colonization on the continent.
Propaganda of the Deed: Propaganda of the deed refers to acts of political violence or terrorism intended to inspire others to take action in pursuit of a specific ideological goal. This concept emerged in the late 19th century, often associated with anarchist movements, and is significant as it represents a shift from traditional propaganda methods, like pamphlets or speeches, to direct, dramatic actions aimed at drawing attention to social injustices and inciting revolutionary fervor. These acts were often seen as a means of demonstrating commitment to a cause and stimulating broader participation in political movements.
Social Darwinism: Social Darwinism is a social theory that emerged in the late 19th century, which applies the concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human societies. This ideology was often used to justify imperialism, colonialism, and racial inequality, suggesting that some races or nations were inherently superior to others. In the context of early European presence in Africa, social Darwinism played a crucial role in legitimizing the exploitation and domination of African societies by European powers.
Christian Missionary Activity: Christian missionary activity refers to the efforts of individuals and groups to spread Christianity, often through preaching, education, and social services, to non-Christian populations. This movement was especially prominent during the era of early European presence in Africa, where missionaries sought to convert indigenous people and promote Western values, often intertwining their religious goals with colonial ambitions.
Displacement: Displacement refers to the forced movement of individuals or groups from their home or original location, often due to conflict, persecution, or environmental changes. This term highlights the impact of colonial powers and internal conflicts on local populations, resulting in significant demographic shifts and social upheaval.
Colonial administration: Colonial administration refers to the system and methods through which colonial powers governed their colonies, establishing authority, enforcing laws, and managing resources and populations. This framework often involved a blend of direct rule, where the colonial power maintained strict control, and indirect rule, which utilized local leaders to administer local affairs while still under the colonial umbrella. The effectiveness and impact of colonial administration varied widely across regions, influencing social, political, and economic dynamics in the colonized areas.
Slave Trade: The slave trade refers to the historical practice of forcibly transporting enslaved individuals, primarily from Africa, to various parts of the world, especially the Americas, to work on plantations and in other labor-intensive roles. This brutal system not only devastated countless lives but also significantly impacted the economies and societies of both the regions involved and those from which the enslaved were taken, influencing social structures and cultural exchanges in profound ways.
Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, beliefs, and behaviors of another culture, often leading to a blending or loss of their original cultural identity. This phenomenon often occurs when groups come into contact due to migration, colonization, or the spread of ideologies, resulting in significant shifts in social structures and cultural practices.
Economic exploitation: Economic exploitation refers to the act of using unfair or unethical means to take advantage of a group or individual, often resulting in significant profit for the exploiter while causing harm or deprivation to those being exploited. This concept is crucial in understanding how European powers operated in Africa, particularly during the early phases of colonization and the subsequent partitioning of the continent, where local resources and labor were exploited for the benefit of foreign interests.
Cape Colony: Cape Colony was a Dutch colonial settlement established in the 17th century at the southern tip of Africa, primarily to serve as a replenishment station for ships traveling to and from the East Indies. This settlement played a pivotal role in early European expansion into Africa, acting as a crucial waypoint for trade and cultural exchange between Europe and the African continent.
Anglo-Zulu Treaty: The Anglo-Zulu Treaty was an agreement signed in 1879 that marked the end of the Anglo-Zulu War, a conflict between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom. This treaty resulted in significant territorial changes and was a crucial moment in the broader context of European imperial expansion in Africa during the 19th century, reflecting the ongoing struggle for control over resources and political power on the continent.
Treaty of Berlin: The Treaty of Berlin, signed in 1885, was an agreement that regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the late 19th century. It marked a significant moment in the scramble for Africa, as it established the rules for the partitioning of African territories among European powers and aimed to prevent conflict between them over colonial claims.
Scramble for Africa: The Scramble for Africa refers to the rapid invasion, occupation, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the late 19th century. This period marked a significant shift in European engagement with Africa, driven by economic interests, political rivalry, and social Darwinism, leading to the division of the continent among European nations and profound impacts on African societies.
Congo Free State: The Congo Free State was a large area in Central Africa that was privately controlled by King Leopold II of Belgium from 1885 to 1908. It was marked by extreme exploitation and brutal treatment of the local population, largely driven by the extraction of rubber and ivory. This entity emerged during a period of intense European imperialism and directly influenced the later establishment of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Cecil Rhodes: Cecil Rhodes was a British imperialist, businessman, and politician who played a crucial role in the expansion of the British Empire in Southern Africa during the late 19th century. He is best known for founding the De Beers diamond company and for his vision of a British-controlled Africa, which greatly influenced early European presence and colonial policies in the region.
Berlin Conference: The Berlin Conference was a meeting held in 1884-1885 where European powers negotiated the division of Africa among themselves, formalizing the Scramble for Africa. It established rules for colonization and territorial claims, disregarding the existing African political structures and cultural boundaries, leading to significant consequences for the continent's future.
Triangular Trade: Triangular Trade refers to a historical trading system that developed during the 16th to 19th centuries, linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas in a three-part exchange of goods, people, and resources. This system primarily involved the transport of enslaved Africans to the Americas, raw materials from the Americas to Europe, and manufactured goods from Europe to Africa. The implications of this trade network had profound effects on economic structures and social systems in these regions.
Kingdom of Kongo: The Kingdom of Kongo was a powerful pre-colonial African state located in West Central Africa, existing from the late 14th century until the 19th century. Known for its sophisticated political organization and trade networks, Kongo played a significant role in regional commerce and cultural exchange, as well as interactions with early European explorers and traders.
Angola: Angola is a country located in southwestern Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north. Known for its rich natural resources, including oil and diamonds, Angola has a complex history shaped by indigenous cultures, Portuguese colonization, and significant political conflicts in the 20th century.