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History of Africa – Before 1800
Table of Contents
Unit 1 Overview: African Geography and Early Human Origins
1.1 African geographical features and climate zones
1.2 Early hominid evolution and migration patterns
1.3 Stone Age cultures and technological advancements
1.4 Neolithic Revolution in Africa

African Stone Age cultures spanned millions of years, from simple tools to complex societies. The Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods saw humans develop increasingly sophisticated technologies and social structures.

Stone tools evolved from basic hand axes to intricate microliths, revolutionizing hunting and food processing. Agriculture emerged in the Neolithic, leading to settled communities, social hierarchies, and artistic expressions like pottery and rock art.

African Stone Age Periods

Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age)

  • Earliest and longest period of human prehistory (2.6 million years ago to around 10,000 BCE)
  • Characterized by the use of simple stone tools (hand axes, cleavers, and scrapers)
  • Hunter-gatherer lifestyle was predominant
  • Emergence of early human species (Homo habilis and Homo erectus)

Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)

  • Transitional phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods (10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE in Africa)
  • Humans adapted to changing environmental conditions
  • Development of more advanced stone tools (microliths)
  • Exploitation of a wider range of food resources (smaller game and plant foods)

Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)

  • Began around 8,000 BCE in Africa
  • Marked by the development of agriculture and animal domestication
  • Rise of settled communities
  • Emergence of more complex stone tools, pottery, and the beginnings of social stratification and trade networks

Stone Age Technologies

Paleolithic Technologies

  • Development of simple stone tools (hand axes, cleavers, and scrapers)
    • Used for hunting, butchering, and processing animal hides
  • Mastery of fire
    • Provided warmth, protection, and a means of cooking food

Mesolithic Innovations

  • Development of microliths (small stone tools)
    • Often hafted onto wooden or bone handles to create composite tools (arrows, spears, and sickles)
    • Allowed for more efficient hunting and gathering practices

Neolithic Technologies

  • Development of agriculture and animal domestication
    • Required new tools (ground stone axes, sickles, and grinding stones) for processing crops
  • Emergence of pottery
    • Provided a means of storing and cooking food
    • Used for creating decorative and ritual objects

Stone Age Impact on Societies

Paleolithic Adaptations

  • Stone tools and fire allowed early human species to adapt to diverse environments
  • Access to new food sources
  • Establishment of social bonds through shared activities (hunting and cooking)

Mesolithic Developments

  • More efficient exploitation of resources due to microliths and composite tools
  • Population growth and increased social complexity
  • Set the stage for the transition to agriculture in the Neolithic period

Neolithic Transformations

  • Rise of settled communities and population growth
  • Emergence of social hierarchies and specialized roles
  • Surplus of food and resources facilitated trade, cultural exchange, and the development of more complex political systems

Stone Age Culture and Art

Paleolithic Expressions

  • Rock paintings and engravings (Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia and Blombos Cave in South Africa)
    • Provide insights into the symbolic and cognitive capabilities of early human species
    • Reflect social and spiritual beliefs

Mesolithic Developments

  • Continued production of rock art
  • Development of personal ornaments (shell beads)
    • May have served as markers of social identity and status

Neolithic Achievements

  • Emergence of more diverse and elaborate forms of expression
    • Pottery with intricate designs
    • Figurines
    • Megalithic structures
  • Reflect the increasing complexity and specialization of Neolithic societies
  • Growing importance of ritual and religious practices

Key Terms to Review (29)

Foraging: Foraging refers to the act of searching for and gathering wild food resources, such as fruits, nuts, seeds, and animal products, rather than relying on agriculture or domesticated animals. This practice was the primary means of subsistence for human societies during the Stone Age, shaping their cultures, social structures, and technological advancements. The skills developed during foraging laid the groundwork for later agricultural practices and had significant implications for human evolution and societal organization.
Desiccation of the Sahara: The desiccation of the Sahara refers to the process of drying out and becoming arid that occurred in the Sahara Desert over thousands of years, particularly since around 5000 BCE. This significant climatic shift transformed a once verdant region, rich in lakes and grasslands, into the dry desert environment we know today. As this transformation took place, it had profound impacts on human populations, migration patterns, and technological advancements.
Grinding Stones: Grinding stones are tools made from hard materials like stone, used primarily for grinding grains and other food substances into a finer powder. These tools played a crucial role in the development of early agricultural societies, facilitating the processing of grains which led to improved food production and storage.
Composite tools: Composite tools are implements made from two or more materials, which combine the strengths of each component to create a more effective tool. This innovation reflects the technological advancements of Stone Age cultures, allowing for increased efficiency in hunting, gathering, and other daily tasks. The development of composite tools marks a significant leap in human ingenuity and adaptability during prehistoric times.
Social stratification: Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society based on various factors like wealth, power, and social status. This system creates layers within a population, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities. Social stratification affects how societies function and influences individuals' life chances, shaping their relationships, identities, and roles within their communities.
Rock art: Rock art refers to the human-made markings and images found on natural rock surfaces, including paintings, carvings, and engravings. This form of artistic expression dates back to prehistoric times and serves as a significant cultural and historical artifact, offering insights into the beliefs, practices, and everyday life of ancient societies, particularly during the Stone Age.
Apollo 11 Cave: Apollo 11 Cave is a significant archaeological site located in Namibia that contains some of the oldest known rock art in Africa, dating back over 25,000 years. This cave is particularly important for understanding early human cultures and technological advancements during the Stone Age, showcasing the cognitive and artistic capabilities of early societies.
Blombos Cave: Blombos Cave is an archaeological site located along the southern coast of South Africa, notable for its evidence of early human behavior and creativity during the Middle Stone Age. This site contains artifacts that indicate advanced cognitive abilities, such as the use of symbolic objects and the production of early art, highlighting the technological advancements and cultural practices of Stone Age societies.
Band societies: Band societies are small, typically nomadic groups of people who rely on hunting and gathering for their subsistence. These societies are characterized by their egalitarian social structures, informal leadership, and a strong emphasis on cooperation and sharing among members. Band societies often represent the earliest form of human social organization, illustrating the way Stone Age cultures adapted to their environments using available technologies.
Ground stone axes: Ground stone axes are tools made from stone that have been shaped and smoothed through grinding, rather than flaking. These axes represent a significant technological advancement during the Stone Age, showcasing early human craftsmanship and the shift towards more specialized tools for various purposes, such as woodworking and agriculture.
Microliths: Microliths are small, flint or stone tools that were created and used by prehistoric cultures, particularly during the later Stone Age. These tools were typically less than 5 centimeters in length and often served as components of composite tools, such as arrows or harpoons. The innovation of microliths reflects significant technological advancements in tool-making and resource utilization during the Stone Age, illustrating the adaptability and creativity of early human societies.
Hunter-gatherer lifestyle: The hunter-gatherer lifestyle refers to a way of life where communities rely on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants for sustenance rather than agriculture. This lifestyle played a crucial role in early human societies, influencing their social structures, technologies, and interactions with the environment. Hunter-gatherers were often mobile, moving in search of food sources, which significantly shaped the development of Stone Age cultures and the technological advancements of the time.
Scavenging: Scavenging refers to the act of searching for and collecting discarded or leftover materials, often for sustenance or utility. In the context of early human societies, scavenging played a crucial role in survival, as it allowed people to utilize resources that were no longer actively being used by others, particularly in relation to hunting and gathering practices of Stone Age cultures.
Pottery: Pottery refers to ceramic ware made by shaping and then firing a non-metallic mineral, such as clay, at high temperatures. This technique not only showcases technological advancements in ancient cultures but also serves as a significant cultural artifact that reflects the social structures, trade practices, and artistic expressions of various civilizations.
Fire-making techniques: Fire-making techniques refer to the various methods used by ancient peoples to create fire, which was crucial for survival, cooking, and protection. These techniques were essential for the development of early human cultures and technological advancements, allowing societies to thrive in diverse environments and influencing social structures, tool-making, and communal activities.
Animal Domestication: Animal domestication refers to the process by which humans selectively breed and raise wild animals for specific traits, leading to changes in behavior, physical characteristics, and dependence on humans for survival. This practice not only transformed the relationship between humans and animals but also played a crucial role in the development of agriculture, settlement patterns, and social structures throughout human history.
Kinship Systems: Kinship systems refer to the social structures and relationships formed by blood ties, marriage, and other forms of familial connections. These systems are crucial for defining social roles, responsibilities, and the organization of societies, shaping cultural practices and beliefs. In many cultures, kinship dictates social behavior, inheritance patterns, and community interactions, linking closely to cultural identity and traditional practices.
Sickles: Sickles are agricultural tools used for cutting or harvesting crops, typically made of a curved blade attached to a handle. In the context of early agricultural societies, sickles represent a significant technological advancement that enabled more efficient harvesting of grains, which was crucial for the development of sedentary farming practices.
Settled communities: Settled communities refer to groups of people who establish permanent residences in a specific location, moving away from a nomadic lifestyle. These communities are characterized by agriculture, the development of social structures, and advancements in technology, which enable individuals to live in one place for extended periods and build complex societies.
Stone tools: Stone tools are implements created by shaping or chipping stones to produce a cutting edge or point, crucial for survival and daily activities in early human societies. These tools played a significant role in the development of various cultures, showcasing technological advancements from simple flakes used for cutting to more complex implements for hunting and processing food.
Neolithic: The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, marks a significant transformation in human history characterized by the development of agriculture and the domestication of animals. This era saw the shift from nomadic lifestyles based on hunting and gathering to settled communities that relied on farming, which fundamentally changed social structures and technological advancements.
Paleolithic: The Paleolithic era, also known as the Old Stone Age, is the earliest phase of human history, spanning from approximately 2.5 million years ago to around 10,000 BCE. This period is characterized by the development of early stone tools and a nomadic lifestyle based on hunting and gathering. The technological advancements during the Paleolithic, such as the creation of hand axes and spearheads, laid the foundation for later cultures and societal structures.
Hand axes: Hand axes are stone tools that were primarily used by early humans during the Lower Paleolithic period, characterized by their bifacial design and sharp edges. These tools represent significant technological advancements in early human culture, enabling more efficient hunting, butchering, and processing of plant materials. The development and use of hand axes illustrate the growing cognitive abilities and adaptability of early hominins as they interacted with their environments.
Mesolithic: The Mesolithic, also known as the Middle Stone Age, is a period that follows the Paleolithic and precedes the Neolithic, characterized by the development of microliths and advances in hunting and gathering techniques. During this time, human societies began to adapt more closely to their environments, leading to significant cultural and technological shifts that paved the way for more complex societal structures.
Trade Networks: Trade networks refer to the complex systems of exchange that facilitate the movement of goods, resources, and ideas across different regions and cultures. These networks were crucial for the economic development of societies, impacting their political structures, social interactions, and cultural exchanges throughout history.
Climate Change: Climate change refers to significant alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other elements of the Earth's climate system, often driven by natural processes and increasingly by human activities. These changes have impacted various aspects of life, including early human evolution, technological advancements, and agricultural practices.
Homo habilis: Homo habilis is an extinct species of early human that lived approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago in Africa. Known as 'handy man' due to its association with the first stone tools, this species is significant in understanding early hominid evolution and migration patterns, as well as the development of technological advancements during the Stone Age.
Homo erectus: Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived approximately 1.9 million to 110,000 years ago, known for being one of the first early humans to exhibit modern human-like body proportions and behaviors. This species played a crucial role in the evolution and migration patterns of early hominids, as they were among the first to leave Africa and spread into Eurasia. Their advancements in tool-making and social behavior marked a significant step in the development of Stone Age cultures.
Agriculture: Agriculture is the practice of cultivating soil, growing crops, and raising animals for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. This vital activity has shaped societies, economies, and cultures throughout history, influencing everything from settlement patterns to social structures.