principles of microeconomics unit 10 study guides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Monopolistic competition involves many firms selling differentiated products with low barriers to entry and exit
• Oligopoly consists of a few large firms dominating a market with high barriers to entry
• Product differentiation strategies include branding, packaging, quality, and features to make products appear unique
• Non-price competition focuses on advertising, product quality, and customer service rather than lowering prices
• Interdependence means the actions of one firm in an oligopoly directly affect the others, leading to strategic decision-making
  • Firms must consider the potential reactions of their competitors when making pricing and output decisions
• Collusion involves firms cooperating to set prices or limit production to maximize joint profits, which is illegal in most countries
• Price leadership occurs when one dominant firm sets the price and other firms follow suit
• Kinked demand curve model suggests that firms in an oligopoly face a kinked demand curve due to the asymmetric responses of competitors to price changes

Market Structures Comparison

• Perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly are the four main market structures
• Perfect competition and monopolistic competition have many firms, while oligopoly and monopoly have few or one firm, respectively
• Barriers to entry are low in perfect and monopolistic competition but high in oligopoly and monopoly
• Product differentiation is absent in perfect competition, limited in monopolistic competition, and significant in oligopoly and monopoly
• Pricing power is low in perfect and monopolistic competition, while firms in oligopoly and monopoly have more control over prices
  • In perfect competition, firms are price takers, accepting the market price
  • In monopolistic competition, firms have some pricing power due to product differentiation
• Long-run economic profits are possible in oligopoly and monopoly but not in perfect or monopolistic competition

Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition

• Many firms compete in the market, each selling a differentiated product
• Low barriers to entry and exit, allowing firms to enter and leave the market relatively easily
• Firms have some control over prices due to product differentiation but still face competition from close substitutes
• Firms engage in non-price competition, focusing on advertising, branding, and product quality to attract customers
• Excess capacity is common in the long run, as firms operate below their efficient scale to maintain product differentiation
• Examples of monopolistically competitive markets include restaurants, clothing retailers, and personal care products

Characteristics of Oligopoly

• A few large firms dominate the market, each having a significant market share
• High barriers to entry, such as economies of scale, capital requirements, and legal barriers, prevent new firms from entering easily
• Firms are interdependent, meaning their actions directly affect each other, leading to strategic decision-making
• Products can be homogeneous (e.g., steel, oil) or differentiated (e.g., automobiles, smartphones)
• Firms may engage in collusion, either explicitly (illegal) or tacitly, to maintain high prices and profits
• Non-price competition is common, particularly in oligopolies with differentiated products
• Kinked demand curve model suggests that firms face asymmetric responses to price changes, leading to price rigidity
• Examples of oligopolistic markets include airlines, wireless carriers, and soft drink producers

Firm Behavior and Strategies

• In monopolistic competition, firms use product differentiation and non-price competition to attract customers and maintain market share
  • Advertising, branding, and product innovation are key strategies
• In oligopoly, firms must consider the actions and reactions of their competitors when making decisions
  • Game theory is often used to analyze strategic interactions between firms
• Collusion, whether explicit or tacit, allows oligopolistic firms to maintain high prices and profits
  • Explicit collusion, such as price-fixing agreements, is illegal in most countries
  • Tacit collusion involves firms cooperating without formal agreements, such as following a price leader
• Price leadership is a common strategy in oligopolies, where one dominant firm sets the price, and others follow
• Predatory pricing involves setting prices below cost to drive competitors out of the market, then raising prices once competition is reduced
• Limit pricing is setting prices just low enough to deter potential entrants from entering the market

Short-Run vs. Long-Run Equilibrium

• In monopolistic competition, firms may earn economic profits in the short run due to product differentiation
  • In the long run, entry of new firms drives economic profits to zero, but firms still operate with excess capacity
• In oligopoly, firms may sustain economic profits in the short and long run due to high barriers to entry
  • The long-run equilibrium depends on the specific market conditions and the strategic interactions among firms
• Collusion can help oligopolistic firms maintain high prices and profits in the long run, but it is unstable and prone to cheating
• Game theory models, such as the prisoner's dilemma, can illustrate the challenges of maintaining collusion in the long run
• In the kinked demand curve model, the long-run equilibrium is characterized by price rigidity and excess capacity

Real-World Examples and Case Studies

• Restaurants and coffee shops are examples of monopolistic competition, with many firms offering differentiated products and services
  • Starbucks and local coffee shops compete by offering unique ambiance, product varieties, and customer service
• Wireless carriers in the United States (e.g., Verizon, AT&T, T-Mobile, Sprint) form an oligopoly, with a few large firms dominating the market
  • They engage in non-price competition through network quality, coverage, and bundled services
• The global smartphone market is an oligopoly, with Apple and Samsung being the dominant players
  • They compete through product innovation, brand loyalty, and ecosystem lock-in effects
• The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an example of an international cartel that aims to coordinate oil production and prices
• The airline industry in many countries is an oligopoly, with a few large carriers and high barriers to entry
  • Firms may engage in price discrimination and loyalty programs to attract and retain customers

Impact on Consumers and Society

• Monopolistic competition can lead to increased product variety and innovation, benefiting consumers
  • However, excess capacity and advertising costs may result in higher prices compared to perfect competition
• Oligopolies can result in higher prices and lower output compared to more competitive market structures, reducing consumer surplus
  • Collusion among oligopolistic firms can further harm consumers by maintaining artificially high prices
• Non-price competition in oligopolies can lead to improved product quality and innovation, benefiting consumers
  • However, it may also result in wasteful spending on advertising and marketing
• High barriers to entry in oligopolies can limit the number of firms and reduce competition, potentially leading to higher prices and lower efficiency
• Predatory pricing and limit pricing strategies by oligopolistic firms can deter new entrants, reducing potential competition and innovation
• Government intervention, such as antitrust laws and regulations, is often necessary to prevent the abuse of market power in oligopolies and protect consumer welfare
  • Antitrust authorities may block mergers, break up dominant firms, or impose fines for anti-competitive behavior