Intro to Cognitive Science

💕Intro to Cognitive Science Unit 6 – Brain Structure & Function in Cognition

The brain's intricate structure and function are central to understanding cognition. From the cerebrum's higher functions to the brainstem's vital regulation, each part plays a unique role. Neurons form complex networks, communicating through synapses and neurotransmitters to process information and generate behavior. Functional areas like the frontal lobe handle executive functions, while the occipital lobe processes vision. Brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and EEG allow researchers to study these areas in action. Understanding brain structure and function is crucial for unraveling cognitive processes and addressing neurological disorders.

Key Brain Structures

  • Cerebrum consists of two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum, responsible for higher cognitive functions (perception, memory, language)
  • Cerebellum located at the back of the brain, coordinates motor movements, balance, and posture
    • Receives input from sensory systems, spinal cord, and other parts of the brain
    • Integrates this information to fine-tune motor activity
  • Brainstem connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, regulates vital functions (breathing, heart rate, sleep)
    • Composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
  • Limbic system includes structures such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, involved in emotions, memory, and motivation
  • Basal ganglia are a group of subcortical nuclei involved in motor control, learning, and executive functions
  • Thalamus acts as a relay center, processing and directing sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex
  • Hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system, endocrine function, and homeostasis (body temperature, hunger, thirst)

Neurons and Neural Networks

  • Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system, specialized cells that transmit and process information
    • Consist of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and an axon
    • Communicate with other neurons through synapses
  • Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released by neurons to transmit signals across synapses (glutamate, GABA, dopamine)
  • Action potentials are electrical impulses that travel along the axon, enabling neurons to transmit information rapidly over long distances
  • Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken in response to activity, underlying learning and memory
  • Neural networks are interconnected groups of neurons that work together to process information and generate complex behaviors
    • Parallel processing allows neural networks to perform multiple computations simultaneously
  • Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons, which continues throughout life in specific brain regions (hippocampus, olfactory bulb)
  • Glial cells support and maintain neurons, providing structural support, insulation, and regulating the extracellular environment

Functional Areas of the Brain

  • Frontal lobe is involved in executive functions, decision-making, problem-solving, and motor control
    • Prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in planning, working memory, and emotional regulation
  • Parietal lobe processes sensory information related to touch, pressure, and spatial awareness
    • Somatosensory cortex receives and interprets sensory input from the body
  • Temporal lobe is involved in auditory processing, language comprehension, and memory formation
    • Hippocampus plays a key role in the formation and consolidation of new memories
  • Occipital lobe is primarily responsible for visual processing, including color, shape, and motion perception
  • Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe, is involved in speech production and language processing
  • Wernicke's area, located in the temporal lobe, is involved in language comprehension and interpretation
  • Motor cortex, located in the frontal lobe, controls voluntary movements and motor skills
  • Association areas integrate information from multiple sensory modalities and contribute to higher cognitive functions (problem-solving, decision-making)

Brain Imaging Techniques

  • Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp
    • Provides high temporal resolution but limited spatial resolution
  • Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures the magnetic fields generated by neuronal activity
    • Offers high temporal resolution and better spatial resolution than EEG
  • Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses radioactive tracers to measure metabolic activity and neurotransmitter levels in the brain
  • Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation related to neuronal activity
    • Provides high spatial resolution and allows for the mapping of brain activity during specific tasks
  • Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) maps the diffusion of water molecules in brain tissue, revealing the structure of white matter tracts
  • Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) uses magnetic fields to stimulate or inhibit specific brain regions, allowing for the study of causal relationships between brain activity and behavior
  • Optogenetics is a technique that uses light to control the activity of genetically modified neurons, enabling precise manipulation of neural circuits in animal models

Cognitive Processes and Brain Function

  • Perception involves the processing and interpretation of sensory information from the environment
    • Visual perception relies on the occipital lobe and ventral stream for object recognition and dorsal stream for spatial processing
  • Attention is the selective focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others, mediated by frontal and parietal regions
    • Divided attention involves simultaneously focusing on multiple tasks or stimuli
  • Memory encompasses the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
    • Short-term memory holds information for a brief period, while long-term memory stores information for extended periods
    • Working memory is the active manipulation and maintenance of information, involving the prefrontal cortex
  • Language processing involves the comprehension and production of spoken and written language
    • Broca's area and Wernicke's area play key roles in language production and comprehension, respectively
  • Decision-making involves evaluating options and selecting a course of action, engaging the prefrontal cortex and limbic system
  • Emotion processing involves the limbic system, particularly the amygdala, in the generation and regulation of emotional responses
  • Executive functions, such as planning, problem-solving, and cognitive flexibility, rely on the prefrontal cortex

Brain Plasticity and Development

  • Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt in response to experience, learning, and injury
    • Synaptic plasticity involves changes in the strength of connections between neurons (long-term potentiation, long-term depression)
  • Critical periods are windows of time during development when the brain is particularly sensitive to specific experiences
    • Sensory systems, such as vision and hearing, have well-defined critical periods for normal development
  • Experience-dependent plasticity occurs when the brain adapts in response to specific experiences or learning
    • Skill acquisition and training can lead to structural and functional changes in relevant brain regions
  • Brain development follows a complex sequence of events, including neurogenesis, migration, differentiation, and synaptogenesis
    • Pruning is the process of eliminating unnecessary synapses and neurons during development, refining neural circuits
  • Aging is associated with changes in brain structure and function, including a decline in gray matter volume and cognitive performance
    • Engaging in mentally stimulating activities and physical exercise may help maintain brain health and cognitive function in older adults
  • Neurogenesis continues throughout life in specific brain regions, such as the hippocampus, and may contribute to learning and memory
  • Environmental factors, such as stress, nutrition, and social interaction, can influence brain development and plasticity

Disorders and Brain Dysfunction

  • Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, involve the progressive loss of neurons and cognitive decline
    • Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, leading to memory loss and cognitive impairment
  • Psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia, are associated with abnormalities in brain structure and function
    • Depression involves dysregulation of neurotransmitter systems (serotonin, norepinephrine) and altered activity in limbic and prefrontal regions
  • Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can result in physical, cognitive, and emotional impairments, depending on the location and severity of the injury
    • Concussions are a mild form of TBI that can lead to temporary cognitive and physical symptoms
  • Neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), involve atypical brain development and function
    • ASD is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and restricted or repetitive behaviors
  • Stroke occurs when blood flow to the brain is disrupted, leading to cell death and neurological deficits
    • Ischemic stroke is caused by a blockage in a blood vessel, while hemorrhagic stroke involves bleeding in the brain
  • Addiction is a chronic disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, involving changes in reward pathways and decision-making processes
  • Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, resulting from abnormal electrical activity in the brain

Current Research and Future Directions

  • Optogenetics and chemogenetics are emerging techniques that allow for precise control of neuronal activity in animal models
    • These tools enable researchers to investigate the causal relationships between specific neural circuits and behavior
  • Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) aim to establish direct communication between the brain and external devices
    • BCIs have potential applications in assistive technologies for individuals with motor disabilities and in the development of neuroprosthetics
  • Neuromodulation techniques, such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), are being explored as treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders
  • Advances in neuroimaging, such as high-resolution fMRI and diffusion imaging, are providing new insights into brain structure and function
    • Connectomics aims to map the complete wiring diagram of the brain, revealing the complex networks underlying cognition and behavior
  • Computational neuroscience and artificial intelligence are increasingly being used to model and simulate brain processes
    • These approaches can help generate testable hypotheses and provide a framework for understanding the mechanisms underlying cognition
  • Personalized medicine approaches, based on an individual's genetic profile and brain characteristics, may lead to more targeted and effective treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders
  • Research on brain plasticity and neurogenesis is exploring ways to promote brain health and resilience throughout the lifespan
    • Interventions such as cognitive training, physical exercise, and social engagement are being investigated for their potential to maintain and enhance cognitive function


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.

© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.