🧋Intro to Asian American History Unit 3 – Japanese American Internment in WWII

Historical Context

• Anti-Asian sentiment in the United States had been growing since the late 19th century fueled by xenophobia and economic competition
• Discriminatory laws such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Immigration Act of 1924 limited Asian immigration and naturalization
• Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 escalated fears and prejudice against Japanese Americans
  • Unfounded suspicions of disloyalty and espionage arose despite no evidence of sabotage or treasonous activities
• Pressure from military officials, politicians, and the public to take action against Japanese Americans intensified in the weeks following Pearl Harbor
• Existing racial prejudice, wartime hysteria, and failure of political leadership contributed to the decision to intern Japanese Americans

Executive Order 9066

• President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942 authorizing the military to designate "military areas" from which any or all persons could be excluded
  • The order did not specifically mention Japanese Americans but was primarily applied to them
• The order gave broad powers to military commanders to remove and relocate individuals deemed a threat to national security
• Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Defense Command, issued a series of proclamations establishing military areas along the West Coast and imposing curfews and travel restrictions on Japanese Americans
• Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens, were affected by the order
• The decision to issue Executive Order 9066 was influenced by a combination of racism, wartime hysteria, and lack of political will to protect the rights of a minority group

Relocation and Internment Process

• In March 1942, the U.S. Army began the process of relocating Japanese Americans from their homes to temporary assembly centers
  • Families were given short notice, often only a few days, to dispose of their property and belongings
• Assembly centers were typically hastily converted fairgrounds, racetracks, or livestock pavilions with inadequate facilities and poor living conditions
  • Tanforan Assembly Center in California housed internees in horse stalls and barracks
• From the assembly centers, internees were transported by train or bus to more permanent relocation centers, also known as internment camps, located in isolated areas of the country
• Ten main relocation centers were established in remote areas of Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming
  • Manzanar and Tule Lake in California, Minidoka in Idaho, and Heart Mountain in Wyoming were among the largest camps
• The relocation process uprooted entire communities and separated families, causing immense physical, emotional, and financial hardship for Japanese Americans

Life in the Camps

• Internment camps were surrounded by barbed wire fences and guard towers manned by armed military personnel
• Living conditions were harsh with overcrowded barracks, limited privacy, and shared facilities such as latrines and mess halls
  • Barracks were often poorly constructed and lacked proper insulation, exposing internees to extreme temperatures
• Internees had to endure loss of freedom, autonomy, and dignity while confined in the camps
  • Daily routines were strictly regulated with roll calls, curfews, and restrictions on movement
• Despite the challenging circumstances, internees strived to maintain a sense of normalcy and community within the camps
  • They organized schools, churches, sports teams, and cultural activities to provide structure and support
• Many internees found ways to express themselves creatively through art, music, and writing
  • Camp newspapers, such as the Manzanar Free Press and the Heart Mountain Sentinel, provided a platform for sharing information and experiences
• The WRA (War Relocation Authority) administered the camps and employed some internees in various roles, such as teachers, doctors, and administrative staff, albeit at much lower wages compared to their non-Japanese American counterparts

Resistance and Legal Challenges

• Some Japanese Americans resisted the internment through various forms of protest and legal challenges
• Fred Korematsu, a 23-year-old welder from Oakland, California, defied the evacuation order and went into hiding
  • He was arrested, convicted, and sent to the Topaz internment camp in Utah
  • Korematsu v. United States (1944) challenged the constitutionality of the internment but the Supreme Court upheld the government's actions based on military necessity
• Gordon Hirabayashi, a student at the University of Washington, refused to comply with the curfew and evacuation orders
  • Hirabayashi v. United States (1943) also resulted in the Supreme Court upholding the government's actions
• Mitsuye Endo, a state employee in California, filed a habeas corpus petition challenging her detention
  • Ex parte Endo (1944) ruled that the government could not detain loyal citizens and ordered Endo's release, but the decision did not address the broader constitutionality of the internment
• Within the camps, some internees organized protests and strikes to demand better living conditions and fair treatment
  • The Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee, a group of draft resisters, protested the drafting of internees while their families remained confined in camps
• Despite these challenges, the wartime Supreme Court decisions largely deferred to the government's claims of military necessity, failing to protect the constitutional rights of Japanese Americans

Impact on Japanese American Communities

• The internment had devastating and long-lasting effects on Japanese American communities
• Families lost their homes, businesses, and personal property as a result of the forced relocation
  • Estimated total losses ranged from $1 billion to$3 billion in 1940s dollars
• The disruption of community ties and social networks created a sense of isolation and displacement
• Internment camps became sites of intergenerational trauma, as the experience of confinement and injustice deeply affected both those who were incarcerated and their descendants
• Many Issei (first-generation immigrants) lost their hard-earned savings and were unable to rebuild their lives after the war
• Nisei (second-generation, U.S.-born citizens) faced challenges in reintegrating into society and often encountered discrimination in employment and housing
• The internment experience also strained relationships within families and between generations
  • Some Nisei resented their parents for not resisting the government's actions more forcefully
  • Others felt shame or guilt for their perceived "disloyalty" to the United States
• The psychological toll of the internment, including feelings of betrayal, humiliation, and powerlessness, had long-term effects on the mental health and well-being of many Japanese Americans

End of Internment and Resettlement

• As the war progressed and the tide turned in favor of the Allies, the government began to reconsider the necessity of the internment
• In December 1944, the Supreme Court ruled in Ex parte Endo that the government could not detain loyal citizens
  • This decision, along with mounting public criticism and the need for labor in the war effort, led to the gradual closure of the camps
• The exclusion orders were lifted in January 1945, and the last internment camp, Tule Lake, closed in March 1946
• Resettlement was a challenging process for many Japanese Americans, as they had to rebuild their lives from scratch
  • The government provided limited assistance through the WRA's resettlement program, which offered transportation and temporary housing and job placement services
• Some internees chose to return to their former communities on the West Coast, while others relocated to other parts of the country to start anew
  • Many faced ongoing discrimination and struggled to find housing and employment in the post-war years
• The transition back to normal life was difficult, as Japanese Americans had to navigate a society that had largely been indifferent to their plight and confront the trauma of their internment experience
• Despite the challenges, Japanese American communities gradually rebuilt and reestablished themselves, drawing on their resilience and determination to overcome adversity

Legacy and Redress

• In the decades following the internment, Japanese Americans and their allies worked tirelessly to seek redress and recognition of the injustice they had endured
• The Civil Liberties Act of 1988, signed by President Ronald Reagan, offered a formal apology and reparations to surviving internees
  • Each eligible individual received a payment of $20,000 and an acknowledgment of the government's wrongdoing
• The act also established the Civil Liberties Public Education Fund to support educational programs and research related to the internment
• In the 1980s, coram nobis cases were filed on behalf of Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Minoru Yasui, challenging their wartime convictions
  • These cases revealed that the government had suppressed evidence and relied on false and misleading information to justify the internment
  • The convictions were overturned, providing a measure of legal vindication for the resisters
• The Japanese American experience during World War II has become a powerful symbol of the fragility of civil liberties and the importance of upholding constitutional rights
• The story of the internment is now taught in schools and commemorated in museums, memorials, and cultural institutions across the country
  • The Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles and the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. have extensive exhibits on the internment
• The legacy of the internment has also informed contemporary debates about national security, racial profiling, and the treatment of marginalized communities in times of crisis
  • The post-9/11 backlash against Muslim Americans and the Trump administration's travel ban have drawn comparisons to the Japanese American experience
• While the redress movement and the Civil Liberties Act provided some measure of closure and acknowledgment, the pain and trauma of the internment continue to reverberate through generations of Japanese Americans
  • Many descendants of internees have become activists, educators, and storytellers, working to ensure that this dark chapter in American history is never forgotten or repeated