Intro to Archaeology Unit 7 Review: Types and Interpretation

What is Artifact Analysis?

• Involves the systematic examination and study of objects made, modified, or used by humans in the past
• Provides insights into the technology, culture, and behavior of past societies through the analysis of their material remains
• Encompasses a wide range of materials including stone tools, pottery, textiles, metal objects, and organic remains (bones, seeds)
• Requires a multidisciplinary approach drawing from fields such as anthropology, history, chemistry, and biology
• Aims to reconstruct the cultural context in which artifacts were produced, used, and discarded
• Helps establish chronologies and cultural sequences based on changes in artifact styles and technologies over time
• Contributes to our understanding of trade networks, social structures, and economic systems of past cultures

Types of Artifacts

• Lithics: stone tools and debris resulting from their production (flakes, cores, projectile points)
• Ceramics: objects made from fired clay (pottery vessels, figurines, tiles)
• Metals: objects made from copper, bronze, iron, gold, or other metals (weapons, jewelry, coins)
• Organic remains: materials of biological origin (bones, shells, wood, seeds, textiles)
  • Faunal remains: animal bones and shells that provide information on diet, hunting practices, and environmental conditions
  • Floral remains: plant materials (seeds, pollen, charcoal) that offer insights into agriculture, diet, and paleoenvironment
• Glass: objects made from molten sand (beads, vessels, windows)
• Architectural remains: structures and features (foundations, walls, hearths, storage pits)

Methods of Artifact Collection

• Surface survey: systematic walking of an area to locate and record artifacts and features visible on the ground surface
• Excavation: controlled removal of soil and sediments to uncover and document buried artifacts and features
  • Stratigraphic excavation: removal of soil in layers following natural or cultural stratigraphy
  • Arbitrary levels: removal of soil in predetermined increments (5 cm, 10 cm) when stratigraphy is unclear
• Screening: sifting excavated soil through wire mesh to recover small artifacts (beads, seeds, small bones)
• Flotation: technique for recovering small organic remains by agitating soil in water and collecting floating materials
• Underwater archaeology: investigation of submerged sites using scuba diving, remote sensing, and specialized excavation techniques
• Remote sensing: use of non-invasive technologies (ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry) to detect and map subsurface features

Cleaning and Preservation Techniques

• Dry brushing: removal of loose dirt and sediment from artifact surfaces using soft-bristled brushes
• Wet cleaning: use of water and gentle brushing to remove adhered soil from artifacts
• Consolidation: application of adhesives or consolidants to stabilize fragile or friable artifacts
• Desalination: removal of soluble salts from artifacts through soaking in deionized water
• Controlled drying: gradual drying of waterlogged artifacts to prevent warping, cracking, or shrinkage
  • Freeze-drying: removal of water from waterlogged organic artifacts through sublimation to minimize shrinkage and distortion
• Labeling: application of identifying numbers or codes to artifacts using stable, reversible materials (ink, tags)
• Storage: use of archival-quality materials (acid-free boxes, foam, tissue) to protect artifacts from physical and chemical damage

Classification Systems

• Typology: grouping of artifacts based on shared physical attributes (shape, size, decoration)
  • Morphological typology: classification based on artifact form and shape
  • Functional typology: classification based on inferred use or function of artifacts
• Seriation: ordering of artifact types based on their relative frequency of occurrence over time
• Attribute analysis: examination of specific characteristics (raw material, manufacturing technique, use-wear) to define artifact types
• Paradigmatic classification: creation of artifact types based on the intersection of multiple independent attributes
• Numerical taxonomy: use of statistical methods (cluster analysis, principal component analysis) to group artifacts based on multiple variables
• Contextual classification: grouping of artifacts based on their association with specific cultural contexts (burials, households, workshops)

Dating Methods

• Relative dating: determination of the chronological order of artifacts or events without assigning specific dates
  • Stratigraphy: principle that older layers are deposited before younger layers in undisturbed contexts
  • Seriation: ordering of artifact types based on their frequency of occurrence over time
• Absolute dating: determination of the age of an artifact or event in calendar years
  • Radiocarbon dating: measurement of the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials to determine their age
  • Dendrochronology: dating of tree rings to establish precise chronologies and cross-date artifacts
  • Thermoluminescence: dating of ceramics based on the accumulated radiation dose in their crystalline structure
  • Optically stimulated luminescence: dating of sediments based on the last exposure of quartz or feldspar grains to sunlight
• Typological cross-dating: dating of artifacts based on their association with securely dated artifacts from other contexts

Interpretation Strategies

• Functional analysis: examination of artifacts to infer their intended use or function based on design, use-wear, and residues
• Technological analysis: study of the manufacturing process, raw materials, and tools used in artifact production
• Stylistic analysis: examination of decorative elements, motifs, and techniques to infer cultural affiliations and chronology
• Contextual analysis: consideration of the spatial and stratigraphic relationships between artifacts and features to infer past behaviors and activities
• Experimental archaeology: replication of ancient technologies and processes to gain insights into artifact production and use
• Ethnoarchaeology: study of contemporary societies to develop analogies for interpreting the archaeological record
• Behavioral archaeology: focus on the relationship between human behavior and material culture to infer past activities and decision-making processes

Challenges and Limitations

• Preservation bias: differential survival of artifacts based on their material properties and depositional environment
  • Organic materials (textiles, wood, bone) are more susceptible to decay than inorganic materials (stone, ceramics)
  • Acidic soils and fluctuating moisture levels can accelerate artifact deterioration
• Sampling bias: incomplete or unrepresentative recovery of artifacts due to excavation strategies, site formation processes, or post-depositional disturbances
• Equifinality: multiple processes or behaviors can result in similar artifact patterns, complicating interpretation
• Palimpsests: mixing of artifacts from different time periods due to site disturbance or low sedimentation rates
• Cultural bias: tendency for archaeologists to interpret artifacts through the lens of their own cultural background and assumptions
• Chronological resolution: limitations in the precision and accuracy of dating methods, particularly for older or contaminated samples
• Looting and illicit trade: destruction of archaeological contexts and loss of information due to unauthorized removal of artifacts