🍁History of Canada – Before 1867 Unit 5 – The Road to Confederation

Key Events and Timeline

• 1864 Charlottetown Conference convened to discuss Maritime Union but expanded to include Canadian delegates and the idea of a larger union
• 1864 Quebec Conference held to draft the 72 Resolutions which formed the basis for Confederation
  • Resolutions outlined the division of powers between federal and provincial governments
• 1866 London Conference finalized the British North America Act
• July 1, 1867 Dominion of Canada officially established consisting of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia
• 1869 Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel in response to the transfer of Rupert's Land to the Dominion without consulting the Métis
• 1870 Manitoba Act created the province of Manitoba and provided some protection for Métis land rights
• 1871 British Columbia joined Confederation
• 1873 Prince Edward Island joined Confederation

Major Political Figures

• John A. Macdonald, Conservative leader and key architect of Confederation, became Canada's first Prime Minister
• George-Étienne Cartier, Macdonald's ally from Canada East (Quebec), played a crucial role in bringing French Canadians into Confederation
• George Brown, leader of the Clear Grits in Canada West (Ontario), supported Confederation as a means to achieve representation by population
  • Brown's role in the Great Coalition with Macdonald and Cartier was pivotal to the success of Confederation
• Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish-Canadian politician and Father of Confederation, was a strong advocate for a united Canada
• Samuel Leonard Tilley, Premier of New Brunswick, was a key supporter of Confederation in the Maritimes
• Charles Tupper, Premier of Nova Scotia, worked to bring his province into Confederation despite significant opposition

Motivations for Confederation

• Desire for a strong, united Canada to counter the growing power and expansionism of the United States, particularly after the American Civil War
• Need for a larger domestic market and economic integration to promote trade and economic growth
  • The end of the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States in 1866 increased the urgency for a new economic arrangement
• Belief that a federation would allow for the preservation of distinct regional and cultural identities (particularly French Canadian) while still creating a larger, more powerful nation
• Political deadlock between Canada East and Canada West in the Province of Canada due to equal representation despite growing population differences
  • Confederation would provide a solution through representation by population in the House of Commons
• Pressure from the British government for the colonies to take on more responsibility for their own defense and governance
• Promise of a transcontinental railway to link the colonies and facilitate settlement and development of the West

Challenges and Opposition

• Concerns over loss of autonomy and local control, particularly in the Maritimes where there was a strong sense of regional identity
  • Anti-Confederation campaigns led by Joseph Howe in Nova Scotia and Timothy Anglin in New Brunswick
• Fears among French Canadians that Confederation would lead to assimilation and the loss of their language, religion, and culture
  • Opposition from some French Canadian leaders like Antoine-Aimé Dorion who favored a more decentralized federation
• Resistance from Indigenous peoples who were not consulted and whose traditional lands and ways of life were threatened by westward expansion and settlement
• Economic concerns, especially in the Maritimes, about the potential negative impacts of free trade with the larger and more industrialized Province of Canada
• Worries about the financial burden of building a transcontinental railway and taking on the debt of the other colonies
• Lack of popular support and democratic legitimacy, as Confederation was largely driven by political elites without direct input from the people through referendums or elections

Conferences and Negotiations

• Charlottetown Conference (September 1864) originally intended to discuss Maritime Union but expanded to include representatives from the Province of Canada
  • Informal discussions laid the groundwork for the Quebec Conference and the idea of a larger federation
• Quebec Conference (October 1864) involved 33 delegates from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland
  • 72 Resolutions were drafted outlining the division of powers, representation in Parliament, and financial arrangements
  • Resolutions formed the basis for the British North America Act
• London Conference (December 1866) attended by 16 delegates from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick to finalize the terms of Confederation
  • Made some changes to the Quebec Resolutions, including strengthening the powers of the central government
  • Resulted in the final draft of the British North America Act
• Negotiations were complex and involved compromises on issues such as the division of powers, representation in Parliament, and the protection of minority rights
  • For example, the guarantee of separate schools for Catholics and Protestants was a key concession to bring Quebec into Confederation

The British North America Act

• Passed by the British Parliament in March 1867 and came into effect on July 1, 1867, creating the Dominion of Canada
• Established a federal system with a central government responsible for matters of national concern (defense, trade, currency) and provincial governments responsible for local matters (education, healthcare, property rights)
• Created a bicameral Parliament with an elected House of Commons and an appointed Senate
  • Representation in the House of Commons was based on population, while the Senate provided equal regional representation
• Outlined the division of powers between the federal and provincial governments (Sections 91 and 92)
  • Federal government given residual powers and the ability to disallow provincial legislation
• Guaranteed the use of both English and French in Parliament and the federal courts
• Provided for the eventual admission of other colonies (British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland) into Confederation
• Did not include any explicit recognition of Indigenous rights or sovereignty
• Served as Canada's constitution until patriation in 1982, though it has been amended several times (e.g., the Statute of Westminster in 1931)

Impact on Indigenous Peoples

• Confederation and the westward expansion that followed had devastating consequences for Indigenous peoples
  • Loss of traditional lands, forced relocation to reserves, and the erosion of traditional ways of life
• The federal government assumed responsibility for "Indians and lands reserved for the Indians" under Section 91(24) of the British North America Act
  • This laid the foundation for the paternalistic and assimilationist policies of the Indian Act and residential schools
• The Métis, led by Louis Riel, resisted the annexation of their lands in the Red River Rebellion (1869-70) and the North-West Rebellion (1885)
  • The rebellions were suppressed by the Canadian government, and Riel was executed for treason in 1885
• The Numbered Treaties (1871-1921) were signed between the Crown and various Indigenous nations to facilitate settlement and resource development in the West
  • Indigenous peoples often understood these treaties as agreements to share the land, while the Canadian government saw them as a means to extinguish Indigenous title
• The Indian Act (1876) and the residential school system sought to assimilate Indigenous peoples into Euro-Canadian society and eradicate their cultures, languages, and spirituality
  • The legacy of these policies continues to impact Indigenous communities today through intergenerational trauma, socioeconomic disparities, and the ongoing struggle for self-determination and reconciliation

Legacy and Significance

• Confederation laid the foundation for the modern Canadian state and its evolution from a British colony to an independent nation
  • It provided a framework for the peaceful resolution of differences and the accommodation of diversity within a federal system
• The division of powers between the federal and provincial governments has been a source of both stability and tension, with ongoing debates over issues like natural resource development, healthcare, and education
• The inclusion of Quebec in Confederation has ensured the survival and vitality of French Canadian language and culture, though tensions between English and French Canada have persisted (e.g., the Quiet Revolution, Quebec sovereignty movement)
• Confederation's promise of a transcontinental railway was fulfilled with the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, which played a crucial role in the settlement and economic development of Western Canada
  • However, the railway also facilitated the displacement and marginalization of Indigenous peoples
• The legacy of Confederation for Indigenous peoples has been one of colonization, dispossession, and assimilation
  • The ongoing process of reconciliation and the recognition of Indigenous rights and sovereignty remains a critical challenge for Canada today
• Confederation set Canada on the path to greater autonomy from Britain, culminating in the Statute of Westminster (1931) and the patriation of the Constitution (1982)
  • However, the British monarchy remains Canada's head of state, and the British North America Act still forms part of Canada's Constitution
• The story of Confederation is often portrayed as a triumph of nation-building and compromise, but it is important to recognize the exclusion of Indigenous peoples, women, and other marginalized groups from the process
  • The ongoing task of building a more inclusive, just, and equitable Canada requires grappling with the complex legacies of Confederation