💰Finance Unit 10 – Capital Structure and Leverage

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Capital structure refers to the mix of debt and equity financing a company uses to fund its operations and growth
• Debt financing involves borrowing money from lenders (banks, bonds) that must be repaid with interest
• Equity financing involves selling ownership stakes in the company to investors in exchange for capital
• Leverage measures the degree to which a company uses debt financing relative to equity financing
  • Higher leverage means a greater proportion of debt financing
• Financial leverage refers to the use of debt to increase the potential return on equity
• Operating leverage refers to the proportion of fixed costs relative to variable costs in a company's cost structure
• Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) represents the average cost of all sources of capital (debt and equity) weighted by their respective proportions

Capital Structure Theories

• Modigliani-Miller (MM) theorem proposes that in a perfect capital market, a firm's value is independent of its capital structure
  • Assumes no taxes, no transaction costs, no bankruptcy costs, and symmetric information
• Trade-off theory suggests that firms balance the benefits of debt (tax shield) against the costs of debt (financial distress and bankruptcy costs) to determine an optimal capital structure
• Pecking order theory argues that firms prefer internal financing (retained earnings) over external financing and debt over equity when external financing is necessary due to information asymmetry
• Agency theory considers the conflicts of interest between shareholders and managers (agency costs) and how capital structure can be used to mitigate these conflicts
• Market timing theory proposes that firms issue equity when market valuations are high and debt when market valuations are low to take advantage of temporary mispricing
• Signaling theory suggests that capital structure decisions can convey information about a firm's future prospects to investors

Types of Leverage

• Financial leverage refers to the use of debt financing to magnify returns to equity holders
  • Increases potential returns but also increases financial risk and the possibility of bankruptcy
• Operating leverage refers to the proportion of fixed costs relative to variable costs in a company's cost structure
  • Higher operating leverage means greater sensitivity of operating income to changes in sales
• Combined leverage is the product of financial leverage and operating leverage and measures the total impact of leverage on a firm's earnings per share (EPS)
• Degree of Operating Leverage (DOL) measures the percentage change in operating income for a given percentage change in sales
• Degree of Financial Leverage (DFL) measures the percentage change in EPS for a given percentage change in operating income
• Degree of Combined Leverage (DCL) is the product of DOL and DFL and measures the percentage change in EPS for a given percentage change in sales

Calculating Financial Ratios

• Debt-to-Equity Ratio = Total Debt / Total Equity
  • Measures the proportion of debt financing relative to equity financing
• Debt-to-Assets Ratio = Total Debt / Total Assets
  • Measures the proportion of assets financed by debt
• Interest Coverage Ratio = EBIT / Interest Expense
  • Measures a firm's ability to meet its interest obligations from operating income
• Fixed Charge Coverage Ratio = (EBIT + Lease Payments) / (Interest Expense + Lease Payments)
  • Measures a firm's ability to meet all fixed financial obligations, including interest and lease payments
• Return on Equity (ROE) = Net Income / Total Equity
  • Measures the return generated on equity capital
• Return on Assets (ROA) = Net Income / Total Assets
  • Measures the return generated on all assets, regardless of financing source

Impact on Firm Value

• Capital structure decisions can affect a firm's value by influencing its cost of capital (WACC)
  • Optimal capital structure minimizes WACC and maximizes firm value
• Tax shield benefits of debt can increase firm value by reducing the effective cost of debt
• Financial distress and bankruptcy costs associated with high leverage can decrease firm value
  • Direct costs include legal and administrative expenses
  • Indirect costs include lost sales, reduced credit terms, and employee turnover
• Agency costs can impact firm value by creating conflicts of interest between shareholders and managers
  • Debt can mitigate agency costs by reducing free cash flow and increasing managerial discipline
• Signaling effects of capital structure decisions can influence investor perceptions and firm value
  • Issuing debt may signal confidence in future cash flows, while issuing equity may signal overvaluation

Risk and Return Trade-offs

• Higher leverage increases the potential return on equity but also increases financial risk and the probability of bankruptcy
• Operating leverage magnifies the impact of changes in sales on operating income and increases business risk
• Combined leverage amplifies the effect of changes in sales on EPS and increases overall risk
• Firms must balance the potential benefits of leverage (higher returns) against the associated risks (financial distress, bankruptcy)
• Cost of equity capital increases with leverage due to the higher risk borne by equity holders
• Optimal capital structure balances the marginal benefits and costs of debt to minimize WACC and maximize firm value

Optimal Capital Structure

• Optimal capital structure is the mix of debt and equity that minimizes a firm's WACC and maximizes its value
• Trade-off theory suggests that the optimal capital structure balances the tax benefits of debt against the financial distress and bankruptcy costs
  • Marginal benefit of debt equals marginal cost at the optimum
• Pecking order theory implies that firms have no specific target capital structure and instead follow a financing hierarchy
• Industry factors can influence optimal capital structure
  • Capital-intensive industries (manufacturing) tend to have higher leverage than service-based industries
• Firm-specific factors such as growth opportunities, profitability, and asset tangibility also affect optimal capital structure
• Dynamic nature of optimal capital structure requires firms to periodically adjust their financing mix as conditions change

Real-world Applications

• Firms use a variety of strategies to manage their capital structure, including debt issuance, equity issuance, and share repurchases
• Capital structure decisions are influenced by macroeconomic conditions, such as interest rates and credit availability
• Firms may deviate from their optimal capital structure for strategic reasons, such as funding an acquisition or investing in a new project
• Financial managers use capital structure analysis to assess the impact of financing decisions on firm value and risk
• Investors and analysts use financial ratios to evaluate a firm's leverage, risk, and financial health
• Credit rating agencies consider a firm's capital structure when assigning credit ratings, which affect borrowing costs and access to capital markets
• Bankruptcy and financial restructuring can result from excessive leverage and the inability to meet financial obligations