🏺Early World Civilizations Unit 10 – The Roman Republic and Empire

Key Figures and Events

• Romulus and Remus, legendary founders of Rome raised by a she-wolf
• Lucius Junius Brutus led the overthrow of the Roman monarchy in 509 BCE establishing the Roman Republic
• Hannibal, Carthaginian general who invaded Italy during the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)
  • Crossed the Alps with war elephants in a surprise attack on Rome
  • Defeated the Romans at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE
• Scipio Africanus, Roman general who defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE ending the Second Punic War
• Julius Caesar, Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire
  • Formed the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus in 60 BCE
  • Conquered Gaul (modern-day France) from 58-50 BCE
  • Crossed the Rubicon River in 49 BCE sparking a civil war
  • Appointed dictator for life in 44 BCE but assassinated shortly after
• Augustus (Octavian), first Roman emperor who established the Principate in 27 BCE ushering in the Pax Romana
• Constantine the Great, first Christian emperor who legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan in 313 CE
  • Founded Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as the new capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE

Rise of the Roman Republic

• Rome began as a small city-state in central Italy around the 8th century BCE
• Overthrew Etruscan rule and expelled its last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, in 509 BCE
• Established a republican system of government led by two elected consuls who served one-year terms
  • Consuls held executive power and served as commanders-in-chief of the army
  • Advised by the Senate, a council of wealthy aristocrats known as patricians
• Struggled between the patricians and the common people, known as plebeians, characterized early republican politics
  • Plebeians seceded from the city in 494 BCE to protest their lack of political power
  • Conflict resolved with the creation of the office of tribune, elected representatives who could veto actions of the magistrates and Senate
• Twelve Tables, first written law code, published in 449 BCE to address plebeian grievances and establish legal equality
• Gradual expansion of voting rights and access to public office for plebeians occurred throughout the early republic

Republican Government Structure

• Centered around the Senate and various assemblies representing different groups of citizens
• Senate served as the primary advisory body consisting of around 300 members drawn from the patrician class
  • Controlled public finances, foreign policy, and appointment of military commanders
  • Membership was for life and vacancies were filled by censors who also conducted the census
• Assemblies passed laws, elected magistrates, and served as courts of appeal
  • Centuriate Assembly organized citizens into voting units called centuries based on wealth and elected consuls and praetors
  • Tribal Assembly organized citizens into voting units called tribes based on geography and elected tribunes and quaestors
• Magistrates were elected officials who held executive, legislative, and judicial powers
  • Consuls (2) held supreme civil and military authority and presided over the Senate and assemblies
  • Praetors (8) served as judges and governors of provinces
  • Quaestors (20) served as financial officers and administrative assistants
  • Aediles (4) supervised public works, festivals, and the grain supply
• Dictator, an emergency magistrate appointed for a six-month term in times of crisis, held absolute power

Roman Expansion and Conquest

• Conquest of the Italian peninsula completed by 264 BCE after the Samnite Wars and Pyrrhic War
• Punic Wars (264-146 BCE) against Carthage resulted in the annexation of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Spain
  • First Punic War (264-241 BCE) fought for control of Sicily and won by Rome
  • Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) saw Hannibal invade Italy but ultimately ended in Carthaginian defeat
  • Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) ended with the complete destruction of Carthage
• Macedonian Wars (214-148 BCE) against Hellenistic kingdoms in Greece and Asia Minor established Roman dominance in the eastern Mediterranean
• Jugurthine War (112-106 BCE) in Numidia won by Gaius Marius demonstrating the effectiveness of his military reforms
• Mithridatic Wars (88-63 BCE) against Pontus in Anatolia consolidated Roman control of Asia Minor
• Gallic Wars (58-50 BCE) led by Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and expanded Roman territory to the Rhine River
• Roman province system established to administer conquered territories and extract resources through taxation and tribute

Transition to Empire

• Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, attempted land and political reforms in the 130s-120s BCE but were assassinated by the Senate
• Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla fought a series of civil wars in the 80s BCE over control of the Republic
  • Marius allied with the populares faction supporting the plebeians while Sulla allied with the optimates faction supporting the aristocracy
  • Sulla emerged victorious and became dictator in 82 BCE implementing a series of constitutional reforms
• First Triumvirate formed in 60 BCE between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus as an informal political alliance
  • Collapsed after the death of Crassus in 53 BCE and the rivalry between Caesar and Pompey intensified
  • Caesar crossed the Rubicon River in 49 BCE sparking a civil war against Pompey and the Senate
  • Caesar emerged victorious and was appointed dictator for life in 44 BCE but was assassinated shortly after
• Second Triumvirate formed in 43 BCE between Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus to avenge Caesar's death and divide the Republic among themselves
  • Octavian and Antony defeated the assassins, Brutus and Cassius, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE
  • Lepidus was sidelined in 36 BCE leaving Octavian and Antony as rivals
  • Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE becoming the sole ruler of Rome
• Octavian granted the title Augustus by the Senate in 27 BCE and became the first Roman emperor establishing the Principate

Imperial Governance and Administration

• Principate (27 BCE-284 CE) established by Augustus as a form of government where the emperor ruled as the "first citizen" while maintaining the facade of the Republic
  • Emperor held the titles of princeps (first citizen), imperator (commander-in-chief), and pontifex maximus (high priest)
  • Retained the Senate and assemblies but their power was greatly diminished
  • Praetorian Guard served as the emperor's personal bodyguard and became a powerful political force
• Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE) established the Dominate, a more openly autocratic form of government
  • Divided the empire into four administrative regions each ruled by a co-emperor (Tetrarchy)
  • Implemented reforms to stabilize the economy and military
• Constantine the Great (r. 306-337 CE) reunited the empire under his sole rule and legalized Christianity
  • Founded Constantinople as the new capital in the east
• Imperial bureaucracy expanded to administer the vast empire
  • Central government consisted of the imperial court, treasury, and various ministries
  • Provincial administration headed by governors appointed by the emperor
  • Cities managed by local councils (curiae) responsible for tax collection and public works
• Roman law codified and standardized across the empire
  • Twelve Tables formed the basis of Roman civil law
  • Praetor's Edict and imperial constitutions further developed the law
  • Justinian's Code (529-534 CE) compiled and systematized Roman law

Roman Society and Culture

• Patriarchal society where the paterfamilias (male head of household) held authority over his family and household
• Women had limited legal rights and were expected to manage the household and raise children
  • Some upper-class women gained influence through their husbands and sons
  • Notable women include Livia (wife of Augustus) and Julia Domna (wife of Septimius Severus)
• Complex social hierarchy divided into patricians, equestrians, plebeians, and slaves
  • Patricians were the wealthy aristocratic class that dominated politics and society
  • Equestrians were the middle class that engaged in commerce and filled administrative positions
  • Plebeians were the common people that worked as farmers, artisans, and laborers
  • Slaves were considered property and performed manual labor and domestic service
• Education was highly valued among the upper classes
  • Children were educated at home by tutors or in private schools
  • Curriculum focused on rhetoric, philosophy, Greek language and literature
• Polytheistic religion centered around the worship of gods and goddesses
  • Major gods included Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Mars, Venus, and Neptune
  • Emperor worship became prevalent during the imperial period as a way to unify the empire
  • Mystery cults such as Mithraism and worship of Isis gained popularity
  • Christianity spread throughout the empire and was legalized by Constantine in 313 CE
• Vibrant cultural life that produced significant works of art, architecture, and literature
  • Colosseum and Pantheon are iconic examples of Roman architecture and engineering
  • Latin literature flourished with works by Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, and Tacitus
  • Roman art and sculpture heavily influenced by Greek styles but developed distinct characteristics

Legacy and Fall of Rome

• Pax Romana (27 BCE-180 CE) was a period of relative peace, stability, and prosperity
  • Empire reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan (r. 98-117 CE)
  • Golden Age of Latin literature and art flourished
  • Economic growth and trade expanded throughout the empire
• Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 CE) marked by political instability, economic decline, and foreign invasions
  • Frequent turnover of emperors and civil wars weakened the empire
  • Debasement of currency led to inflation and economic instability
  • Germanic tribes and Sassanid Persians invaded and threatened the frontiers
• Diocletian and Constantine implemented reforms to stabilize the empire in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries CE
  • Diocletian's Tetrarchy divided the empire and strengthened imperial authority
  • Constantine legalized Christianity and founded Constantinople as the new capital
• Decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE
  • Gothic War (376-382 CE) and Battle of Adrianople (378 CE) saw the Goths defeat the Romans and settle within the empire
  • Sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 CE and the Vandals in 455 CE
  • Last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, deposed by Germanic general Odoacer in 476 CE
• Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE
• Roman legacy had a profound impact on Western civilization
  • Latin language and alphabet used throughout Europe and influenced Romance languages
  • Roman law formed the basis of many modern legal systems
  • Christianity spread throughout the empire and became the dominant religion in Europe
  • Classical art, architecture, and literature rediscovered and emulated during the Renaissance
  • Political ideas of republicanism and imperial governance influenced later governments and empires