💹Business Economics Unit 14 – International Trade and Finance

Key Concepts and Theories

• Absolute advantage refers to a country's ability to produce a good or service more efficiently than another country
• Comparative advantage occurs when a country can produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country
  • Opportunity cost represents the value of the next best alternative forgone when making a decision
• Heckscher-Ohlin model explains international trade patterns based on differences in factor endowments (land, labor, capital) between countries
• Gravity model of trade suggests that trade flows between countries are positively related to their economic sizes and negatively related to the distance between them
• Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries and generate revenue for the government
• Quotas limit the quantity or value of goods that can be imported or exported during a specific period
• Subsidies are financial assistance provided by the government to domestic producers to increase their competitiveness in international markets

Global Trade Patterns

• Intra-industry trade involves the exchange of similar products within the same industry between countries (automotive parts)
• Inter-industry trade occurs when countries trade different types of goods based on their comparative advantages (agricultural products for manufactured goods)
• North-North trade refers to trade between developed countries, often characterized by intra-industry trade and exchange of high-value, technology-intensive goods
• North-South trade describes trade between developed and developing countries, typically involving the exchange of manufactured goods for raw materials and labor-intensive products
• South-South trade has grown in recent years as developing countries increasingly trade with each other, particularly in intermediate goods and services
• Global value chains have emerged as production processes are fragmented across multiple countries, with each specializing in specific tasks or components
• Trade in services has expanded rapidly, encompassing areas such as tourism, financial services, and telecommunications

Trade Policies and Agreements

• Free trade agreements (FTAs) eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers between member countries to promote trade and economic integration (NAFTA, ASEAN)
• Preferential trade agreements (PTAs) provide preferential access to certain products from participating countries, often through reduced tariffs or quotas
• Multilateral trade agreements involve multiple countries and aim to reduce trade barriers and establish common rules for international trade (WTO)
• Trade liberalization refers to the removal or reduction of trade barriers, such as tariffs and quotas, to facilitate the free flow of goods and services between countries
• Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) are restrictions that limit trade through means other than tariffs, such as regulations, standards, and licensing requirements
• Infant industry argument suggests that temporary protection of domestic industries can help them develop and become internationally competitive
• Trade remedies, such as anti-dumping duties and countervailing measures, are used to counter unfair trade practices by foreign producers

Exchange Rates and Currency Markets

• Exchange rates determine the value of one currency in terms of another and affect the price of goods and services traded between countries
• Floating exchange rates are determined by market forces of supply and demand, with minimal government intervention
• Fixed exchange rates are pegged to another currency or a basket of currencies, with the central bank intervening to maintain the fixed rate
• Managed float exchange rates allow for some market flexibility while the central bank intervenes to prevent excessive fluctuations
• Currency appreciation occurs when the value of a currency increases relative to another currency, making exports more expensive and imports cheaper
• Currency depreciation happens when the value of a currency decreases relative to another currency, making exports cheaper and imports more expensive
• Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory suggests that exchange rates should adjust to equalize the prices of identical goods and services across countries

Balance of Payments

• Current account records a country's transactions in goods, services, primary income, and secondary income with the rest of the world
  • Trade balance is the difference between a country's exports and imports of goods
• Capital account includes transactions related to the transfer of ownership of fixed assets and non-produced, non-financial assets between countries
• Financial account captures cross-border transactions involving financial assets and liabilities, such as foreign direct investment (FDI) and portfolio investment
• Balance of payments equilibrium occurs when the sum of the current account, capital account, and financial account balances is zero
• Current account deficit arises when a country's imports of goods, services, and transfers exceed its exports, requiring financing through borrowing or selling assets
• Twin deficits hypothesis suggests that a country with a current account deficit may also have a fiscal deficit, as government borrowing can lead to increased imports and reduced national savings
• Foreign exchange reserves are assets held by a central bank in foreign currencies to manage exchange rates and ensure financial stability

International Financial Institutions

• International Monetary Fund (IMF) promotes global monetary cooperation, financial stability, and provides loans to countries facing balance of payments difficulties
• World Bank Group provides financing, technical assistance, and policy advice to developing countries to promote economic development and poverty reduction
• World Trade Organization (WTO) is a multilateral organization that sets rules for international trade, resolves trade disputes, and promotes trade liberalization
• Bank for International Settlements (BIS) serves as a bank for central banks and fosters international monetary and financial cooperation
• Regional development banks, such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the African Development Bank (AfDB), provide financing and technical assistance to support economic and social development in their respective regions
• Export credit agencies (ECAs) provide government-backed loans, guarantees, and insurance to support domestic companies' exports and international investments
• Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) are state-owned investment funds that invest in foreign assets to achieve financial objectives and support domestic economic development

Globalization and Its Effects

• Economic globalization refers to the increasing integration of national economies through trade, investment, and financial flows
• Trade globalization has led to the expansion of global markets, increased competition, and greater specialization based on comparative advantage
• Financial globalization involves the integration of financial markets, increased cross-border capital flows, and the growth of multinational corporations
• Technology has played a crucial role in facilitating globalization by reducing transportation and communication costs and enabling the creation of global supply chains
• Globalization has contributed to economic growth and poverty reduction in many developing countries by providing access to global markets and attracting foreign investment
• Income inequality has risen in some countries as globalization has led to the outsourcing of jobs and increased competition for low-skilled workers
• Cultural globalization has resulted in the spread of ideas, values, and cultural practices across borders, leading to greater cultural diversity and the emergence of global cultural products

Current Challenges in International Trade

• Trade tensions have escalated in recent years, with increased use of tariffs, trade barriers, and retaliatory measures between major economies (US-China trade war)
• Global economic slowdown, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has led to reduced demand for goods and services and disrupted global supply chains
• Climate change and environmental concerns have prompted calls for more sustainable trade practices and the incorporation of environmental standards in trade agreements
• Digital trade has grown rapidly, creating new opportunities and challenges related to e-commerce, data flows, and intellectual property rights
• Trade in services faces barriers such as regulations, licensing requirements, and limited market access, hindering the growth of service exports
• Trade and development issues, such as the need for capacity building and special and differential treatment for developing countries, remain important in multilateral trade negotiations
• Regional trade agreements have proliferated, leading to concerns about the fragmentation of the global trading system and the potential for trade diversion