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5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession
Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Citation:MLA
As the Election of 1860 approached, it became clear that the country was more deeply divided than ever over the issue of slavery in the territories. The election would prove to be a turning point in American history, leading directly to Southern secession and the Civil War.
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The Lincoln-Douglas Debates
Though occurring two years before the presidential election, the famous debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas set the stage for the political conflicts that would dominate the 1860 campaign.
- Occurred during 1858 Illinois Senate race
- Republican Abraham Lincoln challenged Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas
- Huge crowds (up to 12,000 people) attended the debates
- Main topics: slavery, popular sovereignty, and territorial expansion
- Debates received national newspaper coverage
- Lincoln was not an abolitionist but opposed slavery expansion
- Lincoln's "House Divided" speech warned the nation couldn't remain half-slave and half-free
- Douglas responded with the "Freeport Doctrine"
- Claimed territories could effectively exclude slavery by not passing laws to protect it
- Douglas won the Senate seat, but Lincoln emerged as a national figure
- Debates highlighted the fundamental disagreements dividing the nation
The Fractured Election of 1860
The presidential election of 1860 reflected the deep divisions in American society, with four candidates representing different solutions to the slavery question.
Presidential Candidates of 1860
| Candidate | Party | Position on Slavery | Electoral Votes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abraham Lincoln | Republican | Opposed expansion of slavery into territories | 180 |
| Stephen Douglas | Northern Democrat | Advocated popular sovereignty | 12 |
| John C. Breckinridge | Southern Democrat | Supported slavery expansion | 72 |
| John Bell | Constitutional Union | Avoided slavery issue, focused on preserving Union | 39 |
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Lincoln was known for:
- Serving as congressman from Illinois in 1840s
- Opposing Mexican-American War
- 1858 debates with Stephen Douglas
- Personal opposition to slavery while holding views on race that were common at the time
- Political opposition to slavery's westward expansion
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Lincoln won with only 40% of popular vote
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Did not appear on ballots in most Southern states
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Won without a single electoral vote from the South
“A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." - Abraham Lincoln
Final Attempts at Compromise
As the threat of Southern secession grew following Lincoln's election, desperate efforts were made to find a compromise that would preserve the Union.
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Crittenden Compromise proposed:
- Extending Missouri Compromise line (36°30' parallel) to California
- Constitutional amendment to protect slavery where it existed
- Stronger enforcement of Fugitive Slave Act
- Slavery would be illegal in territories north of the line, permitted south of it
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Compromise failed because:
- Northern politicians opposed guaranteeing slavery south of the line
- Southern politicians rejected restrictions north of the line
- Republicans, including Lincoln, refused to allow slavery's expansion
- Many Southerners no longer trusted Northern promises
Secession Begins
Lincoln's victory, without any Southern electoral support, convinced many Southerners that their influence in the Union had ended and that secession was their only option.
- South Carolina was first to secede (December 1860)
- Six more states followed by February 1861 (before Lincoln's inauguration):
- Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas
- These seven "Deep South" states formed the Confederate States of America
- Jefferson Davis selected as President of the Confederacy
- Confederate constitution explicitly protected slavery
- Seceding states issued declarations citing protection of slavery as primary reason
- Many declarations explicitly mentioned white supremacy as a foundation of their new government
The Start of the Civil War
After months of tension, the conflict finally erupted when Confederate forces attacked a Federal installation in South Carolina.
- Lincoln waited for the South to make the first move
- On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor
- Federal garrison surrendered after 34 hours of bombardment
- Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion
- This call for troops triggered secession of four more "Upper South" states:
- Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina
- These states opposed using military force against the Deep South
- Fort Sumter became known as the site of first shots of the Civil War
Lincoln's election without Southern support revealed how sectional the American political system had become. Despite last-minute compromise attempts, the fundamental disagreements over slavery and states' rights proved too great to resolve through normal political channels. The Confederate states, convinced that their way of life was threatened, chose to leave the Union rather than accept a Republican president, setting in motion the bloodiest conflict in American history.
Key Terms to Review (26)
A house divided against itself cannot stand: This phrase, popularized by Abraham Lincoln, means that a group or entity that is internally conflicted will ultimately fail. In the context of rising tensions over slavery in the United States, it emphasizes the deep divisions between North and South, foreshadowing the impending conflict leading to secession. The phrase captures the essence of political and social strife during this period, highlighting the challenges of maintaining unity in a nation facing profound ideological divides.
Abraham Lincoln: Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He is best known for leading the nation through the Civil War, preserving the Union, and abolishing slavery through the Emancipation Proclamation and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment.
Civil War: The Civil War was a brutal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865, primarily over issues of slavery and states' rights. This war not only pitted the Northern states (the Union) against the Southern states (the Confederacy) but also reshaped the nation's political, social, and economic landscape, leading to significant changes in American society.
Confederacy: The Confederacy, formally known as the Confederate States of America, was a political entity formed by eleven southern states that seceded from the United States between 1860 and 1861. The Confederacy sought to establish itself as a separate nation, primarily to preserve the institution of slavery and maintain their way of life. The formation of the Confederacy and its subsequent actions were pivotal in the lead-up to the Civil War and shaped government policies throughout the conflict.
Constitutional Union Party: The Constitutional Union Party was a political party formed in 1860 that aimed to preserve the Union and avoid civil war by focusing on constitutional principles and compromise. It emerged during a time of intense sectional conflict over slavery and sought to appeal to moderates from both the North and South who were committed to maintaining the existing Union, rather than taking a strong stance on the slavery issue.
Crittenden Compromise: The Crittenden Compromise was a proposal made by Senator John J. Crittenden in late 1860 aimed at preventing the secession of Southern states and the ensuing Civil War by addressing the concerns of slaveholding states. It sought to extend the Missouri Compromise line westward to the Pacific Ocean, allowing for the continuation of slavery in territories south of this line while prohibiting it north of the line. This compromise was significant as it represented a last-ditch effort to reconcile differences between the North and South during a time of intense national strife.
Deep South: The Deep South refers to the region of the Southern United States that is characterized by a strong agricultural economy, a high reliance on slave labor, and a distinct cultural identity. This area became a focal point for the antebellum debate over slavery, leading to its pivotal role in the events surrounding the Civil War and shaping social dynamics during the early Republic.
Democratic Party: The Democratic Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, founded in the early 19th century. It has evolved significantly over time, advocating for issues such as individual rights, social justice, and a more active role of government in the economy. The party's development has been influenced by key historical events and shifts in public sentiment, especially during periods of expanding democracy, cultural transformation, and major conflicts over civil rights and social issues.
Election of 1860: The Election of 1860 was a pivotal presidential election in the United States that showcased deep national divisions primarily over the issue of slavery. The election resulted in the victory of Abraham Lincoln, which triggered a series of events leading to the secession of Southern states and ultimately the Civil War. The election highlighted the increasing sectional conflict between the North and South, setting the stage for transformative changes in American society.
Fort Sumter: Fort Sumter is a sea fort located in Charleston, South Carolina, famous for being the site of the first shots fired in the American Civil War on April 12, 1861. This event marked the beginning of open conflict between the Northern states (the Union) and the Southern states that had seceded, becoming critical in understanding the escalating tensions following the Election of 1860.
Freeport Doctrine: The Freeport Doctrine is a principle articulated by Stephen A. Douglas during the Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858, asserting that territories could effectively exclude slavery by not adopting laws to protect it, regardless of federal laws. This concept connected to the growing sectional conflict as it provided a legal pathway for territories to reject slavery, thus influencing the political landscape leading up to the Election of 1860 and the subsequent secession of Southern states.
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850: The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was a law passed by the United States Congress that mandated the return of runaway slaves to their owners, even if they were found in free states. This act heightened tensions between Northern and Southern states, contributing to sectional conflict, influencing political dynamics leading up to the election of 1860, and impacting African Americans' experiences in the early Republic. It was a critical component of the Compromise of 1850, which attempted to ease disputes over slavery in newly acquired territories.
Jefferson Davis: Jefferson Davis was the President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War, serving from 1861 to 1865. As a key figure in the secession movement, he played a crucial role in the establishment of the Confederacy and led the South during its military efforts against the Union. His leadership style and decisions significantly impacted the course of the Civil War and the South's struggle for independence.
John Bell: John Bell was an American politician and candidate for president in the 1860 election, representing the Constitutional Union Party. His campaign focused on preserving the Union and avoiding secession by appealing to moderates in both the North and South, emphasizing the importance of maintaining peace and unity during a time of rising tensions over slavery and states' rights.
John C. Breckinridge: John C. Breckinridge was a prominent American politician and Confederate general who served as the 14th Vice President of the United States from 1857 to 1861. He became a key figure in the Election of 1860, representing the Southern Democratic Party, and his candidacy symbolized the deep divisions over slavery that ultimately led to secession and the Civil War.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates: The Lincoln-Douglas Debates were a series of seven debates in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, primarily focused on the issue of slavery and its expansion into the territories. These debates were crucial in shaping public opinion on slavery and highlighted the contrasting views of the two candidates, which ultimately influenced the political landscape leading up to the election of 1860 and the subsequent secession of Southern states.
Mexican-American War: The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848, primarily over territorial disputes following the U.S. annexation of Texas. This war resulted in significant land gains for the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming.
Missouri Compromise Line: The Missouri Compromise Line was a boundary established by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which aimed to resolve conflicts over the expansion of slavery into new territories. It designated a line at latitude 36°30' north, where slavery would be permitted in the territory south of the line and prohibited in the territory north of it. This compromise played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape leading up to the events of the Election of 1860 and subsequent secession movements.
Northern Democrats: Northern Democrats were a faction within the Democratic Party in the United States during the mid-19th century that opposed the secession of Southern states and advocated for a negotiated peace with the Confederacy. Their beliefs centered around maintaining the Union while also addressing issues such as slavery and civil liberties, often putting them at odds with more radical factions. This group played a crucial role in the political landscape leading up to and during the Civil War, especially during the Election of 1860.
Republican Party: The Republican Party is a political party in the United States founded in the 1850s, primarily to oppose the expansion of slavery into the territories. The party emerged as a response to the failures of existing political compromises and grew in prominence during significant events such as the election of 1860, which ultimately led to the secession of several Southern states. Over time, it has evolved to address various social, economic, and political issues throughout American history.
Secession: Secession refers to the act of withdrawing formally from an established political entity or union, particularly in the context of the United States where several Southern states broke away from the Union leading up to the Civil War. This act was fueled by deep-seated tensions over issues like slavery, states' rights, and economic differences, ultimately culminating in the Civil War.
South Carolina: South Carolina is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, known for its significant role in early American history, particularly during the Civil War era. It was the first state to secede from the Union in 1860, reflecting deep-rooted regional tensions over issues like slavery and states' rights that were prevalent in this period.
Southern Democrats: Southern Democrats were members of the Democratic Party who primarily resided in the southern United States, known for their support of states' rights and the preservation of slavery before the Civil War. They played a crucial role in the political landscape of the South, advocating for pro-slavery policies and opposing federal intervention in state matters. Their influence extended into the post-Civil War era, shaping resistance to Reconstruction efforts and impacting civil rights for African Americans.
Stephen Douglas: Stephen Douglas was an influential American politician and leader of the Democratic Party in the mid-19th century, best known for his role in promoting the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act. His advocacy for popular sovereignty, which allowed settlers in territories to decide the issue of slavery, intensified sectional conflict and set the stage for his significant involvement in the events leading up to the Civil War.
Upper South: The Upper South refers to the region of the southern United States that includes states like Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. This area was characterized by a mix of agriculture and industry, with a significant reliance on slave labor but less so than the Deep South. Its economy was more diverse and played a crucial role in shaping the social and political dynamics leading up to the Civil War.
White Supremacy: White supremacy is a racist ideology that promotes the belief that white people are superior to individuals of other racial and ethnic backgrounds, leading to systemic discrimination and social injustice. This ideology was deeply rooted in American society, influencing political, social, and economic structures, especially during the period surrounding the Civil War and continuing into the modern era. It has manifested in various forms, including laws, practices, and organizations that uphold racial hierarchies and promote segregation and oppression.