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🔬Modern Optics

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10.4 Fiber optic communication systems

6 min readLast Updated on July 22, 2024

Fiber optic communication systems are the backbone of modern telecommunications. They use light to transmit data over long distances at high speeds, enabling everything from internet connections to phone calls.

These systems consist of transmitters, optical fibers, receivers, and amplifiers. Each component plays a crucial role in converting electrical signals to light, guiding the light through fibers, and converting it back to electrical signals at the destination.

Fiber Optic Communication System Components and Architecture

Components of fiber optic systems

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  • Transmitter converts electrical signals into optical signals
    • Light source generates the optical signal (laser or LED)
    • Modulator encodes the electrical signal onto the optical carrier (external or direct)
    • Driver circuit provides the necessary current and voltage to operate the light source
  • Optical fiber guides the light signal from the transmitter to the receiver
    • Core is the central light-guiding region made of high-purity silica glass
    • Cladding is the outer reflective layer with a lower refractive index than the core
    • Buffer and jacket provide mechanical protection and insulation to the fiber (acrylate or polyimide)
  • Receiver converts the optical signal back into an electrical signal
    • Photodetector converts the incoming light into an electrical current (PIN or avalanche photodiode)
    • Amplifier increases the strength of the electrical signal for further processing
    • Signal processing circuitry recovers the original transmitted data from the amplified signal
  • Connectors and splices join fiber segments or connect fibers to devices
    • Connectors allow easy connection and disconnection (SC, LC, ST, FC)
    • Splices provide permanent joints between fiber segments (fusion or mechanical)
  • Regenerators or repeaters amplify and reshape the optical signal for long-distance transmission
    • Regenerators convert the optical signal to electrical, regenerate it, and convert it back to optical
    • Repeaters amplify the optical signal directly without electrical conversion (optical amplifiers)

Optical Transmitters, Receivers, and Amplifiers

Principles of optical devices

  • Optical transmitters convert electrical signals into optical signals
    • Laser diodes offer narrow spectral width and high output power for long-distance and high-bandwidth applications
      • Fabry-Perot (FP) lasers have a simple structure and are cost-effective
      • Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers have a grating structure for single-wavelength operation
    • Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have a broader spectral width and lower output power for short-distance and lower-bandwidth applications
      • Surface-emitting LEDs (SLEDs) emit light from the surface of the semiconductor chip
      • Edge-emitting LEDs (ELEDs) emit light from the edge of the semiconductor chip
    • Modulation techniques encode data onto the optical carrier
      • Direct modulation varies the current of the light source to modulate the optical output
      • External modulation uses an electro-optic modulator (Mach-Zehnder or electro-absorption) to modulate the light
  • Optical receivers convert optical signals back into electrical signals
    • Photodetectors convert incoming light into an electrical current
      • PIN photodiodes are responsive to a wide range of wavelengths and have low noise
      • Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) provide higher sensitivity and gain through internal amplification
    • Transimpedance amplifier converts the weak photocurrent into a voltage signal
    • Post-amplifier and decision circuit further amplify the signal and recover the original digital data
  • Optical amplifiers boost the power of optical signals without electrical conversion
    • Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) amplify signals in the 1550 nm wavelength region for long-distance transmission
      • Erbium ions are pumped by a laser to a higher energy state and then stimulated by the input signal to emit amplified light
    • Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) are compact and integrable with other components for short-distance and access networks
      • SOAs use a semiconductor gain medium (InGaAsP) to amplify light through stimulated emission

Fiber Optic System Performance Metrics

Performance metrics in fiber optics

  • Bandwidth determines the maximum data rate that can be transmitted through the fiber
    • Single-mode fibers have higher bandwidth than multi-mode fibers due to the absence of modal dispersion
    • Dispersion-shifted fibers (DSFs) are designed to minimize chromatic dispersion at specific wavelengths (1550 nm)
    • Bandwidth is typically measured in MHz·km or GHz·km
  • Bit error rate (BER) quantifies the reliability of the communication system
    • BER is the ratio of the number of bit errors to the total number of transmitted bits
    • Factors affecting BER include signal attenuation, dispersion, and noise
    • Forward error correction (FEC) techniques (Reed-Solomon, Turbo codes) can improve BER by adding redundancy to the transmitted data
    • Acceptable BER values depend on the application (10^-9 for voice, 10^-12 for data)
  • Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) compares the level of the desired signal to the level of background noise
    • SNR is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power, usually expressed in decibels (dB)
    • Noise sources include the light source (RIN), photodetector (shot noise), and amplifiers (ASE)
    • Higher SNR leads to lower BER and better system performance
    • Typical SNR values range from 10 dB to 30 dB, depending on the system design and requirements
  • Attenuation is the reduction of signal power as it propagates through the fiber
    • Attenuation is caused by absorption (material impurities), scattering (Rayleigh, Mie), and bending losses (macrobending, microbending)
    • Attenuation is measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km) and depends on the wavelength of the light
    • Typical attenuation values are 0.2 dB/km at 1550 nm and 0.35 dB/km at 1310 nm for modern single-mode fibers
  • Dispersion is the broadening of light pulses as they travel through the fiber, limiting the maximum data rate and transmission distance
    • Modal dispersion occurs in multi-mode fibers due to the different propagation velocities of the modes
    • Chromatic dispersion occurs in single-mode fibers due to the wavelength dependence of the refractive index
      1. Material dispersion is caused by the variation of the refractive index with wavelength
      2. Waveguide dispersion is caused by the geometry of the fiber waveguide
    • Dispersion compensation techniques include dispersion-compensating fibers (DCFs), fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), and electronic dispersion compensation (EDC)

Applications and Advantages of Fiber Optic Communication Systems

Applications of fiber optic communications

  • Telecommunications networks rely on fiber optics for high-capacity, long-distance transmission
    • Long-haul backbone networks connect cities and countries using dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems
    • Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) networks provide high-speed internet, voice, and video services to residential users (PON, AON)
    • 5G wireless networks use fiber optic backhaul to connect base stations to the core network
  • Data centers use fiber optics for high-speed, low-latency interconnects between servers and storage devices
    • Fiber optics reduce power consumption and heat generation compared to copper cables, improving energy efficiency
    • Fiber optics enable higher data densities and scalability, supporting the growth of cloud computing and big data applications
    • Fiber optic interconnects are used in various form factors (SFP, QSFP, CXP) and protocols (Ethernet, Fibre Channel, InfiniBand)
  • Sensing applications leverage the sensitivity of fiber optics to various physical parameters
    • Fiber optic sensors can measure temperature, strain, pressure, and other quantities with high accuracy and resolution
    • Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) uses fiber optics for continuous monitoring of pipelines, borders, and other critical infrastructures
    • Medical applications include endoscopy (imaging internal organs) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) for high-resolution tissue imaging
  • Advantages of fiber optic communication systems over traditional copper-based systems
    • High bandwidth and data rates, reaching terabits per second using advanced modulation formats and multiplexing techniques
    • Low attenuation and long transmission distances, up to hundreds of kilometers without regeneration
    • Immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI), ensuring signal integrity in harsh environments
    • Small size, light weight, and flexibility of optical fibers, enabling easy installation and space savings
    • Enhanced security, as optical signals are difficult to intercept without detection, making fiber optics suitable for sensitive applications
    • Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) allows multiple signals to be transmitted over a single fiber, greatly increasing the capacity and flexibility of the system


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© 2025 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.