🧑🏻‍💼United States Law and Legal Analysis Unit 9 – Legal Research & Writing Skills

Key Legal Research Tools

• Online legal databases (Westlaw, LexisNexis) provide access to vast collections of legal materials, including case law, statutes, regulations, and secondary sources
• Print resources, such as legal treatises, practice guides, and law reviews, offer in-depth analysis and commentary on specific legal topics
• Government websites, including those of federal and state legislatures, courts, and administrative agencies, provide access to primary legal sources and official publications
• Legal research guides and pathfinders created by law libraries and legal organizations help researchers navigate complex legal topics and locate relevant sources
• Citators (Shepard's, KeyCite) enable researchers to determine the current status of a case, statute, or regulation and identify related authorities
  • Citators use editorial analysis and coding to indicate the treatment of a legal authority by subsequent cases or other sources
  • They help researchers ensure that the authorities they rely on are still good law and have not been overruled, superseded, or otherwise negatively treated
• Legal classification systems, such as the West Key Number System and the LexisNexis Headnote System, organize legal concepts into hierarchical categories, facilitating targeted searches and research
• Annotated statutes and codes provide summaries of case law, legislative history, and other relevant information alongside the text of a statute or code section

Fundamentals of Legal Writing

• Clear, concise, and precise language is essential in legal writing to ensure that the intended meaning is conveyed accurately and unambiguously
• Proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling are crucial to maintain the credibility and professionalism of legal documents
• Organizing legal writing effectively, using headings, subheadings, and logical paragraph structure, enhances readability and comprehension
• Using active voice and avoiding unnecessary jargon or legalese helps to make legal writing more accessible and understandable to a wider audience
• Citing legal authorities accurately and consistently, following the appropriate citation style (Bluebook, ALWD), is necessary to support legal arguments and provide proper attribution
• Proofreading and editing are critical steps in the legal writing process to identify and correct errors, improve clarity, and ensure consistency
• Adapting writing style and tone to the specific purpose and audience of a legal document, such as a brief, memorandum, or contract, is important for effective communication
  • For example, a legal memorandum written for a supervising attorney may include more detailed analysis and discussion of legal authorities than a client letter explaining the same legal issue in plain language

Case Law Analysis Techniques

• Identifying the relevant facts of a case, including the parties involved, the legal issues presented, and the procedural history, is the first step in case law analysis
• Determining the holding of a case, which is the court's decision on the legal issues presented, is crucial for understanding the precedential value of the case
• Analyzing the court's reasoning, including the legal principles, rules, and authorities relied upon, helps to understand the rationale behind the holding and its potential applicability to other cases
• Distinguishing the facts and legal issues of a case from those of other cases is important for determining the scope and limitations of a case's precedential value
• Synthesizing multiple cases on a similar legal issue involves identifying common threads, reconciling conflicting holdings, and extracting general principles that can be applied to new factual scenarios
• Applying the holding and reasoning of a case to a new set of facts requires analogical reasoning and careful consideration of the similarities and differences between the cases
• Recognizing the hierarchical authority of courts (U.S. Supreme Court, federal circuit courts, state supreme courts) is essential for determining the binding or persuasive nature of a case's holding
  • For instance, a decision by the U.S. Supreme Court on a federal constitutional issue is binding on all lower federal and state courts, whereas a decision by a state supreme court on a matter of state law is binding only within that state's jurisdiction

Statutory Interpretation Methods

• The plain meaning rule requires courts to give the words of a statute their ordinary, natural, and commonly understood meaning, unless the statute provides specific definitions or the context suggests a different meaning
• The context and structure of a statute, including its surrounding provisions, headings, and organization, can provide insight into the meaning and purpose of a specific statutory provision
• Legislative history, such as committee reports, floor debates, and sponsor statements, can be used to ascertain the intent of the legislature when the statutory language is ambiguous or unclear
  • However, the use of legislative history is subject to debate, as some judges and legal scholars argue that it is the enacted text of the statute, not the subjective intentions of individual legislators, that should control
• The rule against surplusage presumes that every word and phrase in a statute has meaning and should be given effect, avoiding interpretations that would render any part of the statute superfluous or redundant
• The ejusdem generis canon holds that when a general term follows a list of specific terms, the general term should be interpreted to include only items of the same kind or class as the specific terms
• The expressio unius est exclusio alterius canon suggests that when a statute expressly mentions certain items or exceptions, it implicitly excludes all others not mentioned
• The constitutional avoidance doctrine requires courts to interpret statutes, if possible, in a manner that avoids raising serious constitutional questions or invalidating the statute on constitutional grounds

Legal Citation Formats

• The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the most widely used citation manual in the United States, providing detailed rules for citing legal authorities in academic and practice settings
• The ALWD Guide to Legal Citation, developed by the Association of Legal Writing Directors, is an alternative citation manual that aims to simplify and streamline legal citation rules
• Case citations typically include the case name, the reporter volume and page number, the court name, and the year of the decision (e.g., Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954))
  • Parallel citations may be used to indicate where a case can be found in multiple reporters (e.g., Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, 93 S. Ct. 705, 35 L. Ed. 2d 147 (1973))
• Statute citations generally include the name of the code, the title or chapter number, the section number, and the year of the code edition (e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (2018))
• Regulation citations typically include the name of the code of federal regulations, the title number, the section number, and the year of the code edition (e.g., 29 C.F.R. § 1630.2 (2019))
• Short form citations are used for subsequent references to a previously cited authority within the same document, usually consisting of the case name or a shortened form of the statute or regulation (e.g., Brown, 42 U.S.C. § 1983)
• Parenthetical explanations may be used following a citation to provide additional information about the authority, such as the court's holding, the relevant facts, or the purpose for which the authority is being cited

Drafting Legal Documents

• Contracts are legal agreements between two or more parties that create enforceable rights and obligations, and they must include essential elements such as offer, acceptance, consideration, and mutual assent
• Pleadings, such as complaints and answers, are formal documents filed with a court to initiate or respond to a lawsuit, and they must comply with the applicable rules of civil procedure
• Motions are written requests filed with a court seeking a specific ruling or order, such as a motion to dismiss a complaint or a motion for summary judgment
  • Supporting documents, such as affidavits and exhibits, may be attached to a motion to provide factual support for the requested relief
• Discovery documents, including interrogatories, requests for production, and requests for admission, are used to obtain information and evidence from opposing parties during the pre-trial phase of litigation
• Legal memoranda are internal documents prepared by attorneys to analyze legal issues, research applicable law, and provide recommendations to clients or supervising attorneys
• Briefs are written arguments submitted to a court in support of a party's position on a legal issue, typically filed in connection with a motion or an appeal
• Opinion letters are written by attorneys to provide clients with a formal, reasoned analysis of a specific legal question or transaction, often to help clients make informed decisions or to satisfy due diligence requirements

Effective Legal Argumentation

• Identifying the relevant legal issues and the applicable legal rules is the foundation of effective legal argumentation
• Applying the facts of the case to the legal rules and analogizing or distinguishing precedent cases is necessary to build a persuasive argument
• Anticipating and addressing counterarguments demonstrates a thorough understanding of the legal issues and strengthens the credibility of the argument
• Using clear, logical reasoning and avoiding logical fallacies, such as ad hominem attacks or appeals to emotion, enhances the persuasiveness of legal arguments
• Providing relevant and reliable legal authorities to support each point in the argument is crucial for establishing the legal basis for the position being advocated
• Organizing arguments in a clear, concise, and coherent manner, using headings, subheadings, and topic sentences, makes it easier for the reader to follow the reasoning and logic of the argument
• Employing persuasive writing techniques, such as using active voice, varying sentence structure, and emphasizing key points, can make legal arguments more compelling and memorable
  • For example, using rhetorical questions or repetition can help to highlight important issues or themes in the argument

Ethical Considerations in Legal Research and Writing

• Attorneys have a professional responsibility to provide competent representation to their clients, which includes conducting thorough and accurate legal research and presenting well-reasoned, supported legal arguments
• Plagiarism, which is the unattributed use of another's words or ideas, is a serious ethical violation in legal writing and can result in disciplinary action by the bar association
• Misrepresenting or omitting relevant facts or legal authorities in a legal document is unethical and can violate the rules of professional conduct
• Maintaining client confidentiality is a fundamental ethical obligation for attorneys, and care must be taken to avoid disclosing confidential information in legal research or writing
  • This may require redacting or omitting certain information from documents filed with a court or shared with opposing counsel
• Avoiding conflicts of interest, such as representing clients with adverse interests or using information obtained from one client to benefit another, is essential to maintain the integrity of the legal profession
• Respecting intellectual property rights, including copyrights and trademarks, is important when using or referencing the work of others in legal research and writing
• Fulfilling the duty of candor to the court requires attorneys to be truthful and forthright in their legal arguments and representations, and to disclose controlling legal authorities, even if they are adverse to their client's position