👩🏾‍⚖️Supreme Court Unit 8 – Rights of the Accused: Criminal Procedure

Key Constitutional Protections

• Fourth Amendment protects against unreasonable searches and seizures by requiring probable cause and warrants in most cases
• Fifth Amendment provides due process rights, protection against self-incrimination, and double jeopardy
  • Prevents individuals from being compelled to testify against themselves in criminal cases
  • Prohibits being tried twice for the same offense
• Sixth Amendment ensures the right to a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, and the assistance of counsel
  • Guarantees the accused the right to confront witnesses against them
  • Allows the accused to compel witnesses to testify on their behalf
• Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail, fines, and cruel and unusual punishment
• Fourteenth Amendment extends due process and equal protection rights to state criminal proceedings

Arrest and Search Procedures

• Police must have probable cause to make an arrest or conduct a search
  • Probable cause requires specific, articulable facts that would lead a reasonable person to believe a crime has been committed
• Warrants are generally required for searches and seizures, unless an exception applies
  • Exceptions include exigent circumstances, plain view, consent, and searches incident to arrest
• Stop and frisk allows police to briefly detain and pat down individuals based on reasonable suspicion of criminal activity and weapon possession
• Exclusionary rule prohibits the use of evidence obtained through unconstitutional means in criminal trials
  • Designed to deter police misconduct and protect individual rights
• Good faith exception allows evidence to be admitted if police acted in reasonable reliance on a warrant later found to be invalid

Miranda Rights and Interrogations

• Miranda v. Arizona (1966) established that suspects must be informed of their rights before custodial interrogation
  • Rights include the right to remain silent, the right to an attorney, and the warning that statements can be used against them in court
• Suspects must voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently waive their Miranda rights for statements to be admissible
• Interrogations must cease if the suspect invokes their right to remain silent or requests an attorney
  • Police cannot resume questioning unless the suspect initiates further communication or a significant time has passed
• Coerced confessions violate due process and are inadmissible in court
  • Factors considered include the length of interrogation, use of force, and psychological manipulation

Pre-Trial Rights and Processes

• Suspects have the right to a prompt appearance before a judge after arrest for a probable cause determination
• Bail allows suspects to be released pending trial, with conditions to ensure appearance and public safety
  • Bail cannot be excessive and must consider individual circumstances
• Suspects have the right to counsel at critical stages of the criminal process, including interrogations, lineups, and plea negotiations
  • Indigent defendants must be provided counsel at public expense
• Prosecutors must disclose exculpatory evidence to the defense under Brady v. Maryland (1963)
• Speedy Trial Act sets time limits for various stages of federal criminal proceedings to ensure prompt resolution

Trial Rights and Fair Procedures

• Defendants have the right to a trial by an impartial jury of their peers
  • Juries must be selected from a fair cross-section of the community
  • Peremptory challenges allow attorneys to remove potential jurors without cause, but cannot be based on race or gender
• Confrontation Clause allows defendants to cross-examine witnesses against them and challenge the reliability of evidence
• Defendants have the right to testify on their own behalf, but cannot be compelled to do so
  • Prosecutors cannot comment on a defendant's decision not to testify
• Burden of proof in criminal cases is on the prosecution to prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt
• Defendants have the right to a public trial to ensure transparency and accountability in the criminal justice system

Post-Conviction Rights and Appeals

• Defendants have the right to appeal convictions to higher courts for review of legal errors
  • Appeals are generally limited to issues raised and preserved at trial
• Habeas corpus allows prisoners to challenge the legality of their detention in federal court
  • Prisoners must exhaust state remedies before seeking federal habeas relief
• Ineffective assistance of counsel can be grounds for overturning a conviction if it prejudiced the defendant's case
• Newly discovered evidence can be the basis for a new trial if it is material and likely to change the outcome
• Sentencing must be individualized and consider mitigating factors, such as the defendant's background and role in the offense

Landmark Supreme Court Cases

• Mapp v. Ohio (1961) applied the exclusionary rule to state criminal proceedings
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) required states to provide counsel for indigent defendants in felony cases
• Terry v. Ohio (1968) established the stop and frisk doctrine based on reasonable suspicion
• Batson v. Kentucky (1986) prohibited the use of peremptory challenges based on race
• Strickland v. Washington (1984) set the standard for ineffective assistance of counsel claims
• Apprendi v. New Jersey (2000) required any fact that increases the penalty for a crime beyond the statutory maximum to be submitted to a jury and proved beyond a reasonable doubt

Current Debates and Future Directions

• Racial disparities in policing, prosecution, and sentencing remain a significant concern
  • Calls for reform include increased diversity in law enforcement, implicit bias training, and data collection on police encounters
• Mass incarceration and the impact of mandatory minimum sentences have led to efforts to reduce prison populations
  • Alternatives to incarceration, such as drug treatment and community-based programs, are being explored
• Advancements in forensic science and DNA testing have led to the exoneration of wrongfully convicted individuals
  • Improving the reliability and accuracy of forensic evidence is an ongoing challenge
• The use of technology, such as body cameras and surveillance tools, raises privacy concerns and questions about the scope of police power
• Balancing public safety with the rights of the accused remains a central tension in the criminal justice system
  • Ensuring fair and impartial procedures while effectively investigating and prosecuting crime is an ongoing challenge for policymakers and courts